Por Peter S. Williams

Contra Grayling

Una respuesta cristiana a “Contra todos los dioses” (Oberon Books, 2007)

Por Peter S. Williams (MA, MPhil)

A.C. Grayling, profesor de Filosofía en el Birbeck College de la Universidad de Londres, comienza su autodenominada polémica contra la religión con una pregunta y una respuesta: “¿Merece respeto la religión? Yo sostengo que no merece más respeto que cualquier otro punto de vista, y no como la que más lo merece”[1].  A partir de entonces, la crítica de Grayling a “todos los dioses” es principalmente un asalto a dos caras sobre a) la respetabilidad intelectual de la fe y b) la respetabilidad ética de los creyentes e instituciones religiosas como tales.

Con respecto a la respetabilidad intelectual de la fe, Grayling piensa que: “Algunos en mi propio lado del argumento aquí cometen el error de pensar que la disputa sobre las creencias sobrenaturales es si son verdaderas o falsas. La epistemología nos enseña que el punto clave es sobre la racionalidad”[2].  Mientras que la ‘epistemología’ enseña la distinción entre la verdad y la racionalidad de una creencia (considere la obra de Alvin Plantinga sobre la diferencia entre las objeciones de facto y de jure al teísmo cristiano y cómo los cristianos deberían responder a estos diferentes tipos de objeciones[3]), esta distinción no justifica la afirmación de que el asunto de la verdad tome la última palabra. Dios puede existir incluso si es irracional creer en Dios (así como cierto acusado podría ser culpable incluso si el jurado fuera irracional para condenarlo sobre la base de los datos disponibles para ellos) — una observación que hace menos interesante la acusación de irracionalidad y, por lo tanto, menos fundamental que la acusación de falsedad. Además, si uno tiene una creencia justificada de que el teísmo sea verdadero, con seguridad se justificaría pensar que la creencia teísta fuera racional (así como si alguien tuviera una buena razón para condenar a un acusado determinado, tendría una buena razón para considerar la propia creencia en su culpabilidad por ser racional).

Sin embargo, Grayling reformula incluso una objeción de facto tradicional al teísmo como el problema lógico del mal como una objeción de jure a su respetabilidad racional: “Creer en la existencia de (digamos) una deidad benevolente y omnipotente frente a los cánceres infantiles y las muertes masivas en tsunamis y terremotos [es un ejemplo de] irracionalidad grave”[4].  Grayling no hace nada para elaborar un argumento real en este sentido, y parece ignorar el hecho de que: “Los filósofos de la religión han puesto serias dudas sobre si existe alguna incoherencia que implique las proposiciones apropiadas sobre el mal y las supuestas propiedades de Dios”[5].  Como explica William L. Rowe:

“Algunos filósofos han sostenido que la existencia del mal es lógicamente inconsistente   con la existencia del Dios teísta. Nadie, creo, ha logrado establecer una afirmación tan extravagante. De hecho, concediendo incompatibilismo, hay un argumento bastante convincente para la opinión de que la existencia del mal es lógicamente consistente con la existencia del Dios teísta”[6].

La religión es…

¿Cuál es, más precisamente, el objetivo de Grayling? Grayling afirma (y como veremos, Grayling es muy bueno simplemente afirmando cosas) que:

“por definición, una religión es algo centrado en la creencia de la existencia de organismos o entidades sobrenaturales en el universo; y no meramente en su existencia, sino en su interés por los seres humanos en este planeta; y no solo su interés, sino su interés particularmente detallado en lo que los humanos usan, lo que comen, cuando lo comen [etc.][7]

Se supone que esta lista cada vez más específica de características pretende constituir una especie de argumento demasiado obvio para ser digno de escribir sobre los absurdos de pensar que Dios estaría interesado en su creación (si él se toma la molestia de existir). Sin embargo, también tiene el efecto de sugerir que Grayling nunca ha oído hablar de budistas no-teístas, o deístas, o aristotélicos, o panteístas, o personas que son naturalistas salvo por la creencia de que su mente es más que su cerebro (para el humano el espíritu o el alma de un vegano ciertamente cuenta como una entidad sobrenatural interesada en los seres humanos y en lo que comen). De hecho, es notoriamente difícil definir la religión. Como observó Eric S. Waterhouse: “Nunca se ha encuadrado una definición de religión que afecte a todos los aspectos de la vida, y ninguna ha encontrado incluso una medida considerable de aceptación general”[8].

Apologistas religiosos y creyentes ordinarios

Grayling se queja de que:

“Los apologistas de la fe son una comunidad evasiva que busca evitar o desviar las críticas deslizándose detrás de las abstracciones de la teología superior, un dominio envuelto en neblina de palabras largas, distinciones superfinas y sutilezas vagas, en algunas de las cuales Dios no es nada… y ni siquiera existe… Pero la religión no es teología; es la práctica y el punto de vista de la gente común en la mayoría de los cuales las creencias y supersticiones sobrenaturales fueron inculcadas como niños cuando no podían evaluar el valor de lo que se vendía como una visión del mundo; y es la falsedad de esto y sus consecuencias para un mundo sufriente lo que los críticos atacan”[9].

Esta queja requiere un poco de desenredo. Ciertos apologistas son criticados por defender creencias (como la inexistencia de Dios) que de ninguna manera representan las creencias del creyente ordinario. No tengo ningún problema en criticar a tales creencias, o tales apologistas. Los apologistas en general son criticados por defender la fe usando: a) abstracciones, b) palabras largas que los no expertos no entienden, c) distinciones súper finas y d) vagas sutilezas. Sin embargo, las abstracciones, el lenguaje técnico, las distinciones finas e incluso las vagas sutilezas son la base natural en el oficio de los filósofos, científicos y, de hecho, el de todos los estudiosos que defienden puntos de vista controvertidos sobre el mundo. El mismo Grayling no está por encima de usar abstracciones (“religión”, así como el comportamiento de sus seguidores, es una “abstracción” en la polémica de Grayling); palabras largas que los no expertos no entienden (prueba con “espesado crepúsculo”[10] para el tamaño); distinciones súper finas (como la que existe entre el ateísmo y el naturalismo); o sutilezas vagas (en cuya categoría uno podría poner toda la insinuación de un argumento en el libro de Grayling). Los apologistas deben, por supuesto, hacer todo lo posible para fundamentar sus abstracciones en datos suficientes con una lógica convincente, para explicar su terminología para los no iniciados, para evitar distinciones que son tan finas y que se conviertan en “distinciones sin diferencia” (distinciones que son precisamente lo suficientemente finas son una marca de excelencia filosófica) y que retengan sutilezas vagas para temas que son vagos y/o que realmente requieren una comprensión sutil. Por el tono de Grayling uno imagina que acusaría a todos los apologistas religiosos de no cumplir con estas responsabilidades intelectuales. Lamentablemente, no proporciona ninguna evidencia para respaldar lo que yo consideraría una generalización apresurada en el mejor de los casos y un hombre de paja en el peor de los casos.

La experiencia personal me lleva a pensar que Grayling se sorprendería de lo mucho que la teología y la apologética son parte integrante de la vida y la fe del creyente religioso “común”. Una vez más, es interesante observar cómo Grayling concentra su atención en las supuestas consecuencias negativas de toda religión para un mundo que sufre, pero dice muy poco acerca de la supuesta falsedad de todas las creencias sobre lo sobrenatural. Por último, no creo que el supuesto de Grayling acerca de las creencias sobrenaturales que se inculca en los niños que no pueden evaluar el valor de lo que se les está vendiendo como una visión del mundo nazca por la evidencia. Por ejemplo, como en el 2005   se reveló en el cuestionario de Dare to Engage (Atrévete a participar), una gran proporción de estudiantes de nivel A que han pasado toda su vida criados en hogares religiosos y comunidades que profesan no estar decididos a aceptar esa tradición de fe.

Los males de la religión

Grayling defiende el tono polémico de su libro: “Si el tono de la polémica aquí parece combativo, es porque la competencia entre puntos de vista religiosos y no religiosos es tan importante, un asunto literalmente de vida o muerte, y no puede haber contemporización”[11].  Pensé que, cuanto más importante sea el tema, más importante sería alejar a aquellos con quienes no estás de acuerdo insultándoles. Y como Grayling observa: “El debate se ha vuelto acerbo…”[12]. Uno podría pensar que un debate mordaz implicará más calor que luz. De hecho, Grayling reconoce que: “Podríamos mejorar el respeto que otros nos otorgan si somos amables, considerados… veraces… aspirantes al conocimiento… buscadores del bien de la humanidad, y cosas por el estilo” y admite (de acuerdo al gusto de Richard Dawkins) que: “Ningún conjunto de características tiene alguna conexión esencial con la presencia o ausencia de sistemas de creencias específicos, dado que hay cristianos buenos y desagradables, musulmanes agradables y desagradables, ateos agradables y desagradables”[13]. Sin embargo, Grayling está interesado en: “Criticar las religiones como sistemas de creencias y como fenómenos institucionales que, como lo atestiguan el lúgubre historial y el presente, han causado y continúan causando mucho daño en el mundo, sea cual sea el bien que se pueda reclamar para ellos además”[14].  Esta es una crítica extraña que equivale a decir que incluso si la religión hace abrumadoramente más bien que mal, es razonable criticar a la religión sobre la base del daño que causa. Eso es más bien como conducir un debate sobre los méritos del transporte público al señalar que los trenes a veces chocan, mientras se está preparado para reconocer que los trenes son mucho más seguros que los automóviles.

Grayling señala que “no se han librado guerras, ni se han llevado a cabo pogromos, ni se han quemado personas en la hoguera, sobre teorías rivales en biología o astrofísica”[15].  Esto puede ser, estrictamente hablando, la verdad; sin embargo, lo que uno hace de esta observación más bien depende de la visión que uno tenga de diversos actos que han sido inspirados y/o justificados por varias teorías científicas (¿alguien por el racismo científico, la eugenesia o el aborto?). Para responder que hay una diferencia entre una ciencia que se usa o se tuerce para justificar algo y la ciencia en realidad justificándolo es abrir la puerta para que los creyentes religiosos hagan una defensa paralela de la religión.

Sobre el tema específico de la incineración, mencionado por Grayling (un tema que debería ser entendido dentro de su contexto histórico), el científico social Philip J. Sampson observa que: “El número de enjuiciamientos por brujería a menudo se ha exagerado mucho, y nosotros ahora sabemos que la Inquisición tendió a moderar en lugar de incitarlos”[16].  El historiador William Monter escribe que “la suavidad de los juicios inquisitoriales sobre la brujería contrasta notablemente con la severidad de los jueces seculares en todo el norte de Europa”[17]. De hecho, según el historiador Hugh Trevor-Roper: “En general, la iglesia establecida se oponía a la persecución [de las brujas]”[18].

Con Keith Ward, creo que está claro que: “La religión causa un poco de mal y un poco de bien, pero la mayoría de la gente, frente a la evidencia, probablemente estará de acuerdo en que hace mucho más bien que mal, y que estaríamos mucho peor como especie sin religión”[19]. Esto no es para negar que los cristianos (incluso los cristianos ‘nacidos de nuevo’ de creencias religiosas intrínsecas más que extrínsecas) han hecho muchas cosas terribles a lo largo de la historia (somos, después de todo, pecadores), pero como Ward argumenta: “Hay algunas creencias religiosas inequívocamente malvadas 2025 también hay algunas creencias no religiosas inequívocamente malvadas. Lo que hace que las creencias sean malas no es la religión, sino el odio, la ignorancia, la voluntad de poder y la indiferencia hacia los demás”[20]. La religión no debería ser más atacada con el pincel de sus peores ejemplos que la política o la ciencia. Como dijo William Wilberforce: “Del mismo modo que no descartaríamos la libertad porque la gente abuse de ello, ni el patriotismo, ni el coraje, ni la razón, el discurso y la memoria -aunque todos abusaron– no más deberíamos eliminar la verdadera religión porque los egoístas la han pervertido”[21].

De hecho, algunas formas de religión, al menos, hacen un gran bien. Como advierte el humanista secular Richard Norman:

“Reconozco que la religión ha inspirado no solo a algunos de los peores sino también a algunos de los mejores logros humanos. Ha inspirado movimientos sociales y políticos para mejorar la suerte de los seres humanos, como en la abolición de la trata de esclavos, el movimiento por los derechos civiles, las campañas por la paz, contra la pobreza y la hambruna en el mundo. Ha inspirado muchos de los mayores logros culturales y artísticos… Presentar la religión y sus obras bajo una luz totalmente negativa sería, en mi opinión, irremediablemente desequilibrado”[22].

Todo esto a un lado, como observa Tom Price:

“Me parece que todo el argumento compromete lo que podríamos llamar ‘El culpable por la falacia de asociación’. Lo cual supone que la religión es incorrecta y no creíble porque algunas personas se radicalizan. Esa es solo una mala estructura lógica. Si la religión conduce a la violencia o no, no afecta en si esta es verdad o no. La resurrección de Jesús como un evento, la evidencia que se le presenta y sobre la cual se le pide que base la creencia cristiana, es completamente independiente del comportamiento de sus seguidores. Alister McGrath dio el ejemplo de los médicos: “Solo porque vimos lo que Harold Shipman hizo, no significa que decimos que todos los médicos son malos”[23].

¿Debería la fe ganarse el respeto?

De acuerdo con Grayling:

“Es hora de negarse a caminar de puntillas en torno a personas que reclaman respeto… sobre la base de que tienen una fe religiosa… como si fuera noble creer en afirmaciones sin fundamento y antiguas supersticiones. No tiene sentido. La fe es un compromiso con la creencia contraria a la evidencia y la razón… creer en algo frente a la evidencia y en contra de la razón, creer en algo por fe, es innoble, irresponsable e ignorante, y merece lo contrario al respeto”[24].

De todo corazón estoy de acuerdo en que un compromiso con la creencia contraria a la evidencia y la razón es innoble. De todo corazón estoy en desacuerdo con que esta sea una descripción precisa de mi fe cristiana. La descripción de fe de Grayling comete la falacia del hombre de paja. La falacia del hombre de paja se comete “cuando un argumentador distorsiona la posición de un oponente con el propósito de hacerlo [más fácil] de destruir, refuta la posición distorsionada, y concluye que la opinión de su oponente es por lo tanto demolida”[25]. La definición de fe de Grayling es un hombre de paja porque aunque las creencias irracionales son fáciles de criticar, pocos cristianos aceptarían la definición fácil de crítica de Grayling de “fe” como una que se aplica a ellos. Ciertamente no es como la Biblia describe la fe. Considera lo que la Biblia dice acerca de la evidencia y la razón:

  • El cosmos es la creación de un Dios racional que hizo a los humanos en su propia “imagen” (Génesis 1:27).
  • Dios dice a los seres humanos: “Estemos a cuentas” (Isaías 1:18).
  • El profeta Samuel se puso de pie delante de Israel y dijo: “Voy a confrontarte con evidencias delante del Señor” (1 Samuel 12:7).
  • Según Jesús, el mandamiento más grande incluye el requisito de “amar al Señor tu Dios… con toda tu mente ” (Mateo 22:37).
  • Jesús dijo: “Créanme cuando digo que estoy en el Padre y que el Padre está en mí; o al menos crean en la evidencia de los milagros mismos” (Juan 14:11).
  • Pablo escribió acerca de “defender y confirmar el evangelio” (Filipenses 1:7) y “razonó… desde las Escrituras, explicando y probando” (Hechos 17:2-3).
  • A los cristianos se les ordena: “Siempre estén preparados para dar una respuesta a todos los que les piden que den la razón de la esperanza que tienen… con gentileza y respeto” (1 Pedro 3:15).

El griego traducido como “razón” es “apología“, de lo cual obtenemos la palabra “apologética”, que significa “defensa razonada”. La apologética es el arte de dar una defensa razonada para el cristianismo. El Nuevo Testamento describe la apologética como parte de la “guerra espiritual” en la que los cristianos “derriban argumentos y toda altivez que se levanta contra el conocimiento de Dios…” (2 Corintios 10:5). La Apologética utiliza la erudición de muchos tipos, que implican un compromiso con las “leyes de la razón” en el corazón de la filosofía. Como C.S. Lewis escribió: “La buena filosofía debe existir, si por ninguna otra razón, porque la mala filosofía debe ser respondida”[26]. Tom Price observa que: “Cuando el Nuevo Testamento habla positivamente de la fe, solo usa palabras derivadas de la raíz griega [pistis] que significa “ser persuadido”[27]. Si bien es cierto que Colosenses 2:8 advierte a los cristianos de no ser “cautivos por la filosofía y el engaño vacío según la tradición humana… y no según Cristo”, esta advertencia “no es una prohibición contra la filosofía como tal, sino contra la falsa filosofía… De hecho, Pablo advierte contra una filosofía falsa específica, una especie de gnosticismo incipiente… el artículo definido “esto” en [el] griego indica una filosofía particular”[28].

Sorprendentemente, Grayling hace referencia a la historia del Nuevo Testamento de la incredulidad de Tomás (Juan 20: 24-31), que se negó a aceptar el testimonio de diez amigos acerca de la realidad de la resurrección de Jesús (pero que aceptó esta realidad después de su propio encuentro con la resurrección) — como apoyo a su redefinición de la fe de hombre de paja. Sin embargo, en esta historia, Jesús elogia a las personas que creen sin tener que ver por sí mismos, no aquellos que creen sin evidencia, y mucho menos en contra de la   evidencia. ¡Antes de que Jesús se ofreciera a Tomás para un examen personal, ¡a Tomás no se le pedía que creyera sin pruebas! Además, la razón por la cual Juan da para contar estos eventos es porque son evidencia de la verdad del evangelio (Juan 20: 30-31).

Grayling afirma que: “Es asunto de todas las doctrinas religiosas mantener a sus devotos en un estado de infancia intelectual (¿de qué otra manera mantienen los absurdos aparentemente creíbles?)”[29]. Incapaz de imaginar a una persona intelectualmente madura que no piense que toda religión es absurda, Grayling deduce que todos los creyentes religiosos deben ser intelectualmente inmaduros.  Al parecer, no le preocupa la observación de que al menos algunos creyentes religiosos son pensadores intelectualmente maduros. Por ejemplo, el filósofo secular John Gray hace el siguiente cumplido a los eruditos religiosos contemporáneos:

“Hoy no se puede entablar un diálogo con pensadores religiosos en Gran Bretaña sin descubrir rápidamente que, en general, son más inteligentes, mejor educados y notablemente más librepensadores que los incrédulos (como los ateos evangélicos aún se describen de manera incongruente)”[30].

Según Gray, las acusaciones como las de Grayling dicen más sobre el acusador que sobre el acusado:

“Karl Marx y John Stuart Mill insistieron en que los religiosos morirían con el avance de la ciencia. Eso no ha sucedido, y no existe la perspectiva más remota de que esto suceda en el futuro previsible. Sin embargo, la idea de que la religión puede ser erradicada de la vida humana sigue siendo un artículo de fe entre los humanistas. A medida que la ideología secular se vierte en todo el mundo, quedan desorientados y boquiabiertos. Es esta dolorosa disonancia cognitiva, creo, lo que explica el rencor particular y la intolerancia de muchos pensadores seculares. Incapaces de dar cuenta de la irrefrenable vitalidad de la religión, solo pueden reaccionar con horror puritano y estigmatizarla como irracional”[31].

Según los informes, A.J. Ayer estaba “desconcertado por el hecho de que los filósofos a quienes respetaba intelectualmente, como Michael Dummett, tuvieran creencias religiosas”, pero al menos “tenía que admitir que ese era el caso”[32]. James Lazarus ha reconsiderado públicamente su creencia previa de que es imposible ser razonable y ser creyente:

“La afirmación de que una persona razonable no puede creer en Dios puede ser cuestionada seriamente… Personalmente, he conocido a muchos creyentes que llamaría personas muy racionales, razonables e inteligentes. No los llamaría simplemente racionales, razonables e inteligentes en general, sino que continuaría diciendo que son racionales, razonables e inteligentes con respecto a su creencia en Dios”[33].

Mera afirmación

“Simplemente afirmar algo, no importa cuán fuerte sea, no lo hace cierto. La afirmación confiada no puede sustituir al argumento…” – Nigel Warburton[34].

Una de las principales fallas de Against All Gods (Contra todos los dioses) es la indulgencia repetida de Grayling en la afirmación falsa, o al menos infundada, afirmación. Por ejemplo, Grayling simplemente afirma que “la religión es un dispositivo hecho por el hombre, no menos importante es la opresión y el control”[35]. No hay evidencia o argumentos en apoyo de esta amplia generalización. Por otra parte, Grayling afirma que la historia del nacimiento de Jesús está a la par de otros cuentos de Medio Oriente, como “Hércules y sus labores”[36]. No hay ningún compromiso con los estudios históricos relevantes aquí. Además, no hay compromiso con las muchas obvias dis-analogías entre el testimonio histórico acerca de Jesús por un lado[37], y la mitológica historia genérica de Grayling de una deidad que embaraza a una mujer mortal que luego da a luz a una figura heroica cuyas obras le dan lugar en el cielo[38] en el otro. Por ejemplo, el Nuevo Testamento no presenta a Jesús como que se ganó su lugar en el cielo por sus obras. En todo caso, él se presenta como “ganándose” nuestro lugar en el cielo. Cuentos de dioses embarazando a mujeres mortales de semidioses heroicos (y Jesús no es semi dios en los evangelios) puede haber sido común en el Medio Oriente, pero no eran en absoluto comunes en el contexto judío que dio origen al cristianismo. El ataque de Grayling a la creencia en la concepción virginal de María es pura fanfarronería:

“pregúntale a un cristiano por qué la historia antigua de una deidad que embaraza a una mujer mortal… es falsa tal como se aplica a Zeus y sus muchos amantes… pero verdadera como se aplica a Dios, María y Jesús… No esperes una respuesta racional; un llamamiento a la fe será suficiente, porque con la fe todo vale”[39].

Desafortunadamente para Grayling, esta amplia generalización es demostrablemente falsa. Por ejemplo, mientras era profesor de Historia y Filosofía de la Religión en el King’s College de la Universidad de Londres, el filósofo cristiano Keith Ward escribió un artículo sobre “Evidencia del nacimiento virginal” en el que justificaba la creencia en la historia de la Natividad con evidencia:

“El argumento más fuerte para la veracidad de estos relatos es que es muy difícil ver por qué deberían haber sido inventados, cuando hubieran sido tan impactantes para los oídos judíos… hay dos fuentes independientes de historias de un nacimiento de virgen; y eso aumenta la probabilidad de que se fundan en recuerdos históricos”[40].

Independientemente de si los argumentos históricos de Ward son sólidos (creo que lo son), el punto es que Grayling está claramente equivocado sobre la creencia cristiana en el nacimiento virginal que no tiene nada que ver con la evidencia. Algunos cristianos pueden creer en el nacimiento virginal sin evidencia directa (algunos incluso podrían creer sin evidencia indirecta). Pero algunos cristianos al menos sostienen esta creencia porque creen que la evidencia merece directamente que lo hagan.

Por supuesto, Grayling descarta la idea de que “es razonable que la gente crea que los dioses suspenden ocasionalmente las leyes de la naturaleza”[41]. Si el plural se reemplaza con el singular, esta es una creencia que tengo y que creo que es razonable. Grayling no me ofrece ninguna razón para pensar que estoy equivocado; él simplemente (indirectamente) afirma que lo estoy. Del mismo modo, en The Meaning of Things (El significado de las cosas) Grayling afirma irónicamente que: “La feliz realidad de los milagros es que no requieren apoyo en el camino de la evidencia o la evaluación racional0”[42]. Como generalización, esta afirmación es simplemente falsa. Tanto Jesús como los escritores del Nuevo Testamento apelaron a los milagros de Jesús como evidencia de la verdad de sus afirmaciones personales precisamente porque hubo testimonio de testigos oculares de su aparición. Desde entonces hasta el presente los apologistas cristianos han presentado argumentos basados en evidencia para reclamos milagrosos, especialmente por el milagro de que Jesús resucitó de entre los muertos. Si estos argumentos son o no sólidos, no viene al caso que nos ocupa. El mero hecho de que los argumentos son ofrecidos es suficiente para hundir la afirmación de Grayling. Filosóficamente hablando, me parece que si la creencia en Dios es razonable, entonces la creencia en los milagros es razonable, al menos en principio. Como argumentó Ward en su artículo sobre el nacimiento virginal:

“Si hay un Dios… todas las leyes de la física y la química, etc., deben ser mantenidas por Él. Bien podemos esperar que Él continúe permitiendo que tales leyes operen; de lo contrario, nunca sabríamos qué sucedería a continuación. Pero no hay ninguna razón para que Él algunas veces no haga cosas que no sean predecibles solo con las leyes de la física o la biología. Dios puede hacer lo que quiera con su propio universo”[43].

Dado que me parece que la creencia en Dios es razonable, me parece que la creencia en los milagros es (en principio) razonable. Una de las razones por las que me parece que creer en Dios es razonable es que ofrece la mejor explicación para la existencia del mundo natural. De hecho, Grayling sugiere que quizás las personas religiosas:

“necesitan creer en agentes [sobrenaturales] porque de otra manera no pueden entender cómo puede haber un mundo natural, como invocando al “Caos y la noche anterior” (en una mitología del Medio Oriente, los progenitores de todas las cosas) explicaran cualquier cosa, y mucho menos la existencia del universo. Hacerlo podría satisfacer una necesidad metafísica patológica de lo que Paul Davies llama “la super-tortuga auto-levitante”, pero obviamente no vale la pena discutirlo”[44].

Admito que no puedo, además de una creencia en algún tipo de dios, entender cómo puede haber un mundo natural. Sin embargo, no admito que esto se deba a una peculiar falla de imaginación de mi parte. Los comentarios de Grayling exhiben un rechazo francamente sorprendente de abordar las complejas cuestiones filosóficas que rodean a varias versiones del argumento cosmológico defendido por destacados filósofos contemporáneos de la religión (por ejemplo, W. David Beck, William Lane Craig, Alexander R. Pruss, Robert C. Koons, la lista continúa); una evasión que sustituye el psicoanálisis de sillón y las referencias de paja a la mitología por el diálogo racional. La pregunta es si nadie (no solo las “personas religiosas”) pueden entender cómo puede haber un mundo natural sin una causa sobrenatural. Argumentos cosmológicos, como su nombre indica, discutir que no pueden, porque la comprensión más plausible de la existencia del mundo natural es, de hecho, que hay más en la realidad que en el mundo natural. Contra estos argumentos, Grayling dirige un esnobismo cronológico poco sofisticado (que C.S. Lewis definió como: “La aceptación acrítica del clima intelectual de nuestra propia época y la suposición de que lo que haya quedado desactualizado es por ese lado desacreditado”[45]) y una insinuación indirecta de que todos los teístas sufren de algún tipo de bloqueo mental que les impide compartir la visión superior del naturalista sobre los por qué y los por qué de la realidad. ¿Cuál es la comprensión que ofrece Grayling de cómo puede haber un mundo natural? Ninguna. Simplemente afirma que el naturalismo es verdadero: “Ningún ateo debe llamarse a sí mismo uno… Un término más apropiado es ‘naturalista’, que denota que el universo es un reino natural, gobernado por las leyes de la naturaleza. Esto correctamente implica que no hay nada sobrenatural en el universo…”[46]. Ciertamente implica esta conclusión; no la justifica. Grayling escribe que: “Las personas con creencias teístas deberían llamarse sobrenaturales, y se les puede permitir intentar refutar los hallazgos de la física, la química y las ciencias biológicas en un esfuerzo por justificar su afirmación alternativa de que el universo fue creado, y es dirigido por seres sobrenaturales”[47].  Sin embargo, esto equivale a otra aseveración porque, en el mejor de los casos, Grayling simplemente está asumiendo que el teísmo soporta una carga de prueba que el ateo no posee.

Fue otro filósofo británico, Antony Flew (que recientemente se convirtió en teísta[48]), quien más famoso instó a que la “carga de la prueba recae sobre el teísta”[49], y que a menos que se puedan dar razones convincentes para la existencia de Dios, debería haber una “presunción de ateísmo”. Sin embargo, por ‘ateísmo’, Flew quería decir simplemente ‘no-teísmo’, una definición no estándar de ‘ateísmo’ que incluye el agnosticismo, pero excluye el ateísmo como comúnmente se entiende. La presunción de ateísmo, por lo tanto, no es particularmente interesante a menos que (como parece ser la suposición de Grayling) realmente sea la presunción de ateísmo en lugar de la presunción de agnosticismo. Sin embargo, el primero es mucho más difícil de defender que el segundo:

“la ‘presunción del ateísmo’ demuestra una manipulación de las reglas del debate filosófico para jugar en manos del ateo, quien hace una afirmación de la verdad. Alvin Plantinga correctamente argumenta que el ateo no trata con las afirmaciones de ‘Dios existe’ y ‘Dios no existe’ de la misma manera. El ateo asume que si uno no tiene evidencia de la existencia de Dios, entonces uno está obligado a creer que Dios no existe, ya sea que tenga evidencia o no   en contra   de la existencia de Dios. Lo que el ateo no puede ver es que el ateísmo es tanto una afirmación de saber algo (“Dios no existe”) como el teísmo (“Dios existe”). Por lo tanto, la negación de la existencia de Dios por parte del ateo necesita tanta justificación como lo hace la afirmación del teísta; el ateo debe dar razones plausibles para rechazar la existencia de Dios… en ausencia de evidencia de la existencia de Dios, el agnosticismo, no el ateísmo, es la presunción lógica. Incluso si los argumentos a favor de la existencia de Dios no persuaden, no se debe presumir el ateísmo porque el ateísmo no es neutral; el agnosticismo puro sí lo es. El ateísmo se justifica solo si hay suficiente evidencia contra la existencia de Dios”[50].

Como escribe Scott Shalkowski: “Basta decir que si no hubiera ninguna evidencia para creer en Dios, esto [en el mejor de los casos] legitimaría meramente el agnosticismo a menos que exista evidencia contra la existencia de Dios”[51].

Por otra parte, ¿por qué el teísta necesitaría   refutar cualquiera de los hallazgos de la ciencia moderna? Por un lado, Grayling realmente no dice lo que él considera que son los hallazgos de la ciencia moderna; por otro lado, él no explica por qué él piensa que esos supuestos hallazgos están en tensión con cualquier creencia religiosa en particular. Explica que no considera la teoría del Diseño Inteligente como uno de los hallazgos de la ciencia moderna (como algunos, incluso yo mismo); pero la definición de identidad de Grayling es un hombre de paja (lo confunde con el creacionismo)[52] e incorrectamente lo etiqueta un argumento de la ignorancia[53]), y su compromiso con el argumento de Michael Behe a partir de la complejidad irreductible biomolecular es leve, por decir lo menos[54].

Grayling escribe que: “En contraste con las certezas absolutas de la fe, un humanista tiene una concepción más humilde de la naturaleza y la extensión actual del conocimiento. Todas las preguntas que la inteligencia humana realiza para ampliar el conocimiento progresa siempre a expensas de generar nuevas preguntas”[55]. Me identifico con el enfoque ‘humilde’ de Grayling al conocimiento; pero me pregunto si Grayling está incluso abierto a la posibilidad de que algunas de esas preguntas generadas por el progreso del conocimiento (especialmente el conocimiento científico) puedan tener a ‘Dios’ como su verdadera respuesta. Si Grayling no está abierto a esta posibilidad, sus protestas de humildad epistemológica son propensas a sonar falsas. Si él está abierto a esta posibilidad, entonces uno se pregunta ¿qué hacer con sus afirmaciones sobre la supuesta “lenta, pero sangrienta retirada de la religión”[56] frente al progreso científico? En el mejor de los casos, estas afirmaciones tendrían que indicar una inferencia tentativa y que pueda refutarse a partir de la evidencia disponible en lugar de una suposición dogmática de que la ciencia y la religión están necesariamente en desacuerdo con la religión del lado perdedor.

De hecho, la descripción de Grayling de la “lenta, pero sangrienta retirada de la religión”[57] es un anacronismo académico. Como Alister McGrath reporta: “La idea de que la ciencia y la religión están en perpetuo conflicto ya no es tomada en serio por ningún gran historiador de la ciencia”[58]. De hecho, según el ateo Michael Ruse:

“La mayoría de la gente piensa que la ciencia y la religión están, y necesariamente deben estarlo, en conflicto. De hecho, esta metáfora de la “guerra”, tan amada por los racionalistas del siglo XIX, tiene solo una aplicación tenue a la realidad. Durante la mayor parte de la historia del cristianismo, fue la Iglesia el hogar de la ciencia… No fue hasta el siglo XVII, en el momento de la Contrarreforma, que la Iglesia Católica mostró verdadera hostilidad hacia la ciencia, cuando condenó a Galileo por su promulgación del heliocentrismo copernicano. (Copérnico mismo no había sido simplemente un buen católico, fue un sacerdote). En el siglo XIX, la Iglesia Católica había vuelto a su papel tradicional… es cierto que la llegada de la evolución, particularmente en la forma de Origen de las especies de Charles Darwin, pone esta tolerancia a severa prueba. Pero sin negar que había opiniones fuertes en ambos lados, la verdad parece ser que gran parte de la supuesta controversia era una función de la imaginación de los no creyentes (especialmente Thomas Henry Huxley y sus amigos), quienes estaban decididos a matar dragones teológicos existieran o no”[59].

Grayling señala que “los supernaturalistas gustan de afirmar que algunas personas irreligiosas recurren a la oración cuando están en peligro de muerte, pero los naturalistas pueden responder que los sobrenaturalistas generalmente depositan gran fe en la ciencia cuando se encuentran (digamos) en un hospital o un avión, y con mucha mayor frecuencia”[60]. En otras palabras, los naturalistas pueden ser inconsistentes, pero los teístas son más inconsistentes. Desafortunadamente para Grayling, el naturalista que ora in extremis y el sobrenaturalista que confía en la ciencia en su día a día simplemente no son análogos. El naturalista que ora es alguien cuya acción es coherente con las creencias que están en contradicción con sus creencias cotidianas. El supernaturalista que va al hospital no ve ninguna incoherencia entre confiar en un cirujano y confiar en Dios, y ¿por qué deberían hacerlo? Grayling admite que: “Los supernaturalistas pueden afirmar que la ciencia misma es un regalo de Dios, y así justificarlo”[61]. Como escribe Alvin Plantinga: “La ciencia moderna surgió dentro del seno del teísmo cristiano; es un brillante ejemplo de los poderes de la razón con los que Dios nos creó; es una exhibición espectacular de la imagen de Dios en nosotros los seres humanos. Así que los cristianos se comprometen a tomar la ciencia y las liberaciones de la ciencia contemporánea con la mayor seriedad”[62]. Sin embargo, Grayling quiere recordar a los creyentes que Karl Popper dijo que “una teoría que explica todo no explica nada”[63]. Se supone que esta observación revela la locura de la posición supernaturalista. Grayling aparentemente (es imposible estar seguro) tiene algo así como el siguiente argumento en mente:

  • Un supernaturalista que confía en cualquier cosa (o tal vez en todo) que la ciencia nos dice está contradiciendo su cosmovisión o no.
  • Si están contradiciendo su cosmovisión, su cosmovisión no puede mantenerse de manera consistente y debe ser archivada.
  • Si no contradicen su cosmovisión, esto solo puede ser porque su cosmovisión es compatible con lo que sea o puedan ser los hallazgos de la ciencia.
  • Pero una cosmovisión que sea compatible con lo que los hallazgos de la ciencia son o podrían ser explicaciones de todo y, por lo tanto, no explica nada.
  • Una cosmovisión que no explica nada debe ser archivada.
  • Por lo tanto, de cualquier manera, el sobrenaturalismo debe ser archivado.

Hay varios problemas con este argumento. En primer lugar, ¿si una persona no puede vivir su cosmovisión consistentemente en ocasiones, esto necesariamente significa que su cosmovisión debe ser archivada (o que es falsa)? ¿Debería un ateo dejar de lado su ateísmo en el momento en que se encuentra orando? Las cosmovisiones constantemente incompatibles son sospechosas, pero la falta de incompatibilidad es una cuestión de condición y, en el mejor de los casos, solo está relacionada indirectamente con la racionalidad o la verdad de una cosmovisión. En segundo lugar, si un supernaturalista no es inconsistente al visitar un hospital, no está contradiciendo nada de lo que cree que la ciencia realmente tiene que decir sobre el mundo; pero esto no significa que su cosmovisión sea necesariamente consistente con nada que la ciencia podría decir con sinceridad sobre la realidad. Las creencias religiosas pueden incluir, y de hecho implican, afirmaciones de la verdad que tienen el potencial de entrar en conflicto con el conocimiento científico. Por ejemplo, la afirmación de la verdad de que Jesús resucitó entraría en conflicto con la ciencia si los arqueólogos alguna vez hubieran descubierto los huesos de Jesús. Hubo incluso un reclamo reciente, aunque académicamente ridiculizado y muy desacreditado, en este sentido[64]. Finalmente, Grayling aplica comentarios de Poppers fuera de contexto, siendo el contexto de teorización científica. Las teorías metafísicas no pueden simplemente suponerse que estén sujetas a los mismos criterios que las teorías científicas. De hecho, la observación de Popper debe ser entendida dentro del contexto de su filosofía falsacionista de la ciencia, una filosofía ahora ampliamente abandonada por los filósofos de la ciencia. Por lo tanto, incluso haciendo nuestro mejor esfuerzo para construir el tipo de argumento que Grayling parece estar formulando cuando cita a Popper, no encontramos nada de alguna sustancia. Por supuesto, Grayling podría ser capaz de construir un argumento más sustancial para llenar su nombre Popperiano; pero el hecho de que nos vemos obligados a hacer el trabajo por él, revela cuán dependiente de la afirmación es su polémica.

Religión y la esfera pública

“La tolerancia es una virtud rara e importante. Tiene sus límites, pero por lo general están demasiado apretados y en lugares equivocados”. – A.C. Grayling[65]

Grayling escribe: “Es hora de revertir la noción predominante de que el compromiso religioso es intrínsecamente merecedor de respeto, y que debe manejarse con guantes y protegido por la costumbre y en algunos casos la ley contra la crítica y el ridículo”[66]. Estoy de acuerdo en que no es un compromiso religioso per se lo que merece respeto; sino la persona con un compromiso religioso que merece respeto y cuyo compromiso (en igualdad de condiciones) debe ser respetado, es decir, al menos tolerado en una sociedad libre. Como Grayling escribe: “Lo que hay que hacer en oposición a la respuesta predecible de los creyentes religiosos es que los individuos humanos merecen respeto ante todo como individuos humanos[67]. El cristianismo está de acuerdo con Grayling en este punto; no hay ninguna base en la teología cristiana para valorar a una persona más que a otra, ciertamente no sobre la base de lo que creen:

“La humanidad compartida 2025 es la base última de todas las relaciones persona a persona y de grupo a grupo, y puntos de vista que establecen diferencias entre los seres humanos como base de consideración moral, especialmente aquellas que implican reclamos de posesión por parte de un grupo de mayor verdad, santidad o similares, comienzan en el lugar absolutamente equivocado”[68].

Como cristiano, digo ‘Amén’. El punto de Grayling puede haber atacado algunas religiones, pero está fundamental en acuerdo con el cristianismo. De hecho, la posición de Grayling es una expresión del humanismo que deriva de las raíces cristianas del humanismo en el Renacimiento (y, por último, por supuesto, dentro de la Biblia), con eruditos como el humanista y teólogo holandés Desiderio Erasmo. Grayling escribe:

“Es hora de exigir a los creyentes que tomen sus elecciones personales y preferencias en estos asuntos no racionales y con demasiada frecuencia peligrosos en la esfera privada, como sus inclinaciones sexuales. Todos son libres de creer lo que quieran, siempre que no molesten (o coaccionen o maten) a otros… es hora de exigir y aplicar un derecho para el resto de nosotros a la no interferencia de personas y organizaciones religiosas: un derecho a ser libres de proselitismo y los esfuerzos de los grupos minoritarios autoseleccionados para imponer su propia elección de moralidad y práctica a quienes no compartimos su punto de vista”[69].

Ciertamente puedo estar de acuerdo con Grayling en que nuestro sistema democrático podría construirse mejor hasta el fin de representar los puntos de vista de la población y decidir los asuntos sobre la base de argumentos relevantes. Sin embargo, sí vivimos en una democracia, y apenas no se trata de minorías religiosas imponiendo su propia elección de moralidad y práctica a aquellos que no comparten su punto de vista. (De hecho, el caso es a menudo todo lo contrario, como lo demuestra el reciente debate sobre las agencias de adopción católicas[70]) Grayling puede muy bien quejarse acerca de: “Personas de fe religiosa, que se dan el derecho incuestionable de respetar la fe a la que se adhieren, y un derecho a avanzar, si no es que imponer (porque dicen saber la verdad, recuerden) sus opiniones sobre los demás”[71]. Sin embargo, como cristiano, no es tanto mi fe que creo que tiene derecho a ser respetada, ya que mi persona como ser humano tiene derecho al respeto. Este no es un derecho que excluya la disidencia o el cuestionamiento intelectual robusto de los no creyentes. Tampoco excluye la polémica artística de comediantes, dibujantes, guionistas y otros. Sin embargo, se extiende al derecho a esperar que los detractores no participen en ataques ad hominem, o para atacar con caricaturas de hombres de paja de mi posición. De hecho, este derecho no es más que la expectativa de que aquellos que quieran criticar mis creencias deberían estar sujetos a los mismos estándares del discurso académico civil que deberían aplicarse cuando la bota es, por así decirlo, del otro pie.

Por otra parte, Grayling claramente se toma a sí mismo para tener derecho a presentar (e incluso, como veremos más adelante, para imponer) sus puntos de vista sobre los demás, precisamente porque afirma conocer la verdad (al menos conocer la verdad mejor que cualquier creyente religioso la conoce). Quejándose de los creyentes religiosos que se dedican precisamente al mismo tipo de actividad, precisamente por la misma razón, enloda a Grayling en un doble estándar (este fango depende de cuánto más uno lee de la polémica de Grayling). Irónicamente (y dejando de lado la afirmación de Grayling de que todas las creencias religiosas son preferencias no racionales), en su defensa de la creencia de que “todos son libres de creer lo que quieren, siempre que no molesten (o coaccionen o maten) a otros…”[72], Grayling está: a) molestando a las personas religiosas al escribir una polémica en contra de sus creencias (algo que estoy feliz de que él haga), y b) abogar por la coacción a creyentes religiosos. Su posición parece ser que las personas deberían ser libres de tener las creencias religiosas que deseen sin temor a la coacción, etc., siempre y cuando no crean que sus creencias deberían acompañarlos a la esfera pública, en cuyo caso deberían ser obligados a no hacerlo. Dado que las creencias de Grayling implican la coacción de los demás, de acuerdo con sus propios criterios ¡él no debería ser libre de creer como lo hace! Grayling claramente ha dibujado los límites de la tolerancia demasiados estrechos, y por lo tanto ha caído dentro de su propia definición de intolerancia: “Una persona intolerante… desea que otros vivan como él cree que deberían y… busca imponer sus prácticas y creencias sobre ellos”[73].  La sugerencia de Grayling va más allá de su afirmación anterior, en The Meaning of Things (El significado de las cosas), que: “La única coacción debería ser la del argumento…”[74].

Si Grayling quiere creer que se debe obligar a las personas a no llevar sus creencias religiosas a la esfera pública, debe aceptar que las personas son libres de creer que las personas deben ser libres de llevar sus creencias religiosas a la esfera pública. Grayling no puede tener las dos cosas sin caer en un doble estándar autocontradictorio, autoexceptor. De hecho, Grayling adopta otra regla de autoexcepción cuando aboga por “el derecho a ser libre de proselitismo”, ¿qué es Against All Gods (Contra todos los dioses), sino un acto de proselitismo para el humanismo secular? Sin duda, todos deberían tener el derecho de invitar al debate público sobre su propia cosmovisión; e igualmente todos deben tener el derecho de no leer, escuchar, mirar o participar en una conversación sobre estos temas cuando se ofrece. Por ejemplo, tanto los Testigos de Jehová como los Humanistas Seculares deberían, creo, tener el derecho de llamar a mi puerta ofreciéndome literatura y discusión (no es que esto último lo haga). Y debería tener el derecho de invitarlos a una charla, o de despedirlos amablemente, como mejor me parezca. Grayling no dice nada sobre los derechos de los religiosos a no ser proselitistas por parte de los no religiosos (por lo tanto, sus derechos propuestos discriminan a los religiosos). Permítanme ser claro, no quiero ningún derecho semejante: quiero que los humanistas seculares sean libres de escribir libros públicos como Against All Gods (Contra todos los dioses); sino a cambio parece justo esperar el derecho de respuesta pública.

Grayling afirma la necesidad de “devolver el compromiso religioso a la esfera privada…”[75]. Desafortunadamente, hay al menos algunas formas de creencias religiosas que son esencialmente de mentalidad pública. Por ejemplo, el cristianismo es, por su propia naturaleza, una religión misionera y una religión que toma en serio servir a otros. Tales creencias simplemente no pueden ser relegadas a la esfera privada mientras se mantienen. Uno no puede simplemente prohibir la proclamación pública del mensaje del ‘evangelio’, o actos públicos de caridad cristiana, sin por ello prohibir efectivamente el cristianismo mismo. Si Grayling está realmente comprometido a excluir a toda religión de la esfera pública, exigiendo y aplicando un derecho de los no religiosos a la “no interferencia”, por lo tanto, está necesariamente comprometido con la prohibición del cristianismo.

[Anexo: En una reciente conversación de radio con Grayling, me complació encontrarlo en un estado de ánimo más liberal, pero me sorprendió descubrir que pensaba que “proselitismo ” era sinónimo de “lavado de cerebro”, que ciertamente ¡no es la definición de diccionario del término! cf. A.C. Grayling y Peter S. Williams, ‘The God Argument’ (El argumento de Dios) http://www.bethinking.org/who-are-you-god/advanced/unbelievable-ac-graylings-the-god-argument.htm / http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/spanish/proselytize]

No me gusta el corte de tu pluma

Grayling ofrece un psicoanálisis sin pruebas de creyentes religiosos que: “Entran en el dominio público vistiendo o luciendo declaraciones visuales inmediatamente obvias de su afiliación religiosa…”[76]. De acuerdo con Grayling:

“Al menos uno de sus motivos para hacerlo es que se le otorgue la identidad primordial de un devoto de esa religión, con la demanda implícita asociada de que, por lo tanto, se le dé algún tipo de tratamiento especial, incluido el respeto… aunque excentricidades de la vestimenta y la creencia fueron de poca importancia en nuestra sociedad, cuando el compromiso religioso personal estaba más reservado a la esfera privada, a la que pertenece correctamente, de lo que lo ha hecho últimamente su politización”[77].

Sin embargo, no es difícil imaginar otros motivos además del único atributo de Grayling, y uno se pregunta si Grayling diría lo mismo acerca de usar los colores del equipo de fútbol de su país o nación .Si usar una declaración visual inmediatamente obvia de la asociación religiosa de uno es un acto político, ¿se debe desaprobar solo sobre ese hecho? En ese caso, ¿no sería igualmente sospechoso el uso de un traje de baño de la bandera del Reino Unido en la playa, especialmente en el extranjero? Y si la última sugerencia es una reducción absurdum de la primera, ¿la naturaleza sospechosa del acto político en cuestión es solo un asunto de su contenido religioso? ¿En qué caso Grayling está defendiendo que repudiemos cualquier y toda expresión religiosa, por menor que sea? ¿O es el supuesto problema aquí una cuestión de condición? Porque hay una diferencia obvia entre llevar una cruz pequeña en una cadena por un lado y por el otro llevar una cruz de tamaño completo por las calles en Semana Santa. ¿Grayling quiere imponer una prohibición contra ambas formas de expresión, o solo la última? Grayling es bastante vago acerca de cuán iliberal es él aquí.

Sin embargo, la actitud abiertamente antiliberal de Grayling a la religión raya en la paranoia. Afirma que: “Cuando cualquiera de estas ideologías encarceladas está a la zaga y/o en minoría, presentan rostros dulces a aquellos que desean seducir: el beso de la amistad en la iglesia parroquial, el campamento de verano para jóvenes comunistas en la década de 1930. Pero dales las palancas del poder y son los talibanes, la Inquisición, la Stasi[78].  No es de extrañar que Grayling piense que debemos ser duros con la religión y duros con las causas de la religión. ¡Aparentemente, un enfoque de tolerancia cero es la única forma de salvar la civilización occidental de una Inquisición de la Iglesia de Inglaterra! El comediante Eddie Izzard una vez realizó un acto hilarante que involucró tal inquisición, presentando el ‘Torta o muerte a la Iglesia de Inglaterra’, en la que las autoridades religiosas obligaron a la gente a elegir entre un buen trozo de torta o la muerte. En otras palabras, es difícil tomar en serio la paranoia radical de Grayling. Frente a esto, Grayling sin duda respondería que: “En su forma moderna, moderada y paliativa, el cristianismo es una versión reciente y altamente modificada de lo que, durante la mayor parte de su historia, ha sido una ideología a menudo violenta y siempre opresiva… un monje medieval quien se despertó hoy… no podría reconocer la fe que lleva el mismo nombre que la suya”[79].  Si bien es una lástima que no tengamos monjes medievales a quienes plantear esta pregunta, podría considerarse ser algo así como una pista falsa. Tal vez antes de la reforma (y contrarreforma) el cristianismo medieval era aberrante   para los estándares del cristianismo auténtico del Nuevo Testamento, que es, después de todo, el único estándar que realmente cuenta. Pero si Grayling tiene razón acerca de que el cristianismo contemporáneo tiene al menos una forma que es una aberración en su naturaleza modesta y permisiva, entonces está equivocado sobre que toda religión esté a la par con la Stasi. Grayling no puede tener las dos cosas.

¿Puede un ateo ser un fundamentalista?

Grayling piensa que no, pero yo quiero diferir. Grayling está molesto por:

“Los apologistas religiosos [que] acusan a los no religiosos de ser ‘fundamentalistas’ si atacan la religión con demasiada solidez, sin parecer darse cuenta de la ironía de emplear, como término de abuso, una palabra que se aplica principalmente a las tendencias demasiado comunes de su propia perspectiva. ¿Puede un punto de vista que no es una creencia sino un rechazo de cierto tipo de creencia ser realmente ‘fundamentalista’? Por supuesto no…[80]

Sin embargo, el mismo Grayling señala que no ser religioso, o más específicamente ser un ‘ateo’, es en el mejor de los casos una descripción parcial de una cosmovisión no religiosa más amplia: “Como sucede, ningún ateo debería llamarse a sí mismo uno… el término más apropiado es “naturalista”, que denota quien toma que el universo es un reino natural…”[81]. En el uso popular ‘ateo’ se utiliza como sinónimo de ‘naturalista metafísico’, y mientras estrictamente hablando de ateísmo puede o no puede ser incapaz de la calificación fundamentalista, naturalismo metafísico (‘ateísmo’ en su sentido popular) es sin duda   capaz de la hazaña, como lo demuestra ampliamente la existencia de Richard Dawkins. Grayling busca evitar la etiqueta fundamentalista aplicada a su propia posición jugando con un equívoco sobre el significado del “ateísmo”.

Grayling afirma: “Es también el momento de dejar de lado… una frase utilizada por algunas personas religiosas cuando se habla de quienes hablan abiertamente sobre su incredulidad en cualquier afirmación religiosa: la frase “ateo fundamentalista”[82]. El mero hecho de que ‘fundamentalista’ se utiliza para calificar ‘ateo’ en esta frase debería llevar a Grayling al hecho de que no tiene la intención de describir a aquellos que son simplemente “francos sobre su incredulidad a cualquier afirmación religiosa”. Sin embargo, Grayling parece pensar que “fundamentalista” es necesariamente un calificador redundante cuando se lo vincula con el ateísmo, y plantea la siguiente pregunta retórica: “¿Qué sería un ateo no fundamentalista? ¿Sería él alguien que solo creyera un tanto que no existen entidades sobrenaturales en el universo…?[83]  Si bien el concepto de ateo con dudas es aparentemente incomprensible para Grayling, parece tener tanto sentido como un ‘cristiano de domingos’ para mí. Sin embargo, sugiero que una mejor respuesta a la pregunta de Grayling es que el ‘ateo fundamentalista’ significa un ateo que piensa que la creencia en Dios es una falla intelectual y ética perniciosa a la que deben oponerse activamente los no creyentes de buen juicio. En otras palabras, un ateo fundamentalista es lo que apodó un miembro del movimiento de la Revista Wired como “El nuevo ateísmo” en una historia de portada de noviembre de 2006 por el editor y agnóstico Gary Wolf:

‘Los nuevos ateos no nos dejarán salir del anzuelo simplemente porque no somos creyentes doctrinarios. Condenan no solo la creencia en Dios sino el respeto por creer en Dios. La religión no solo es incorrecta; es malvada. Ahora que la batalla se ha unido, no hay excusa para eludir. Tres escritores han llamado este llamado a las armas. Ellos son Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris y Daniel Dennett[84].

El Against All Gods (Contra todos los dioses) de Grayling es claramente otra reserva del campo ‘Nuevo (o ‘fundamentalista’) ateo’.

En 2006 el darwinista Michael Ruse tuvo un intercambio de correos electrónicos notoriamente malhumorado con Daniel Dennett en el que el primero etiquetó el libro de este último Breaking the Spell (Rompiendo el hechizo) “realmente malo y no digno de ti”[85]:

“Creo que tú y Richard [Dawkins] son absolutos desastres en la lucha contra el diseño inteligente: estamos perdiendo esta batalla… lo que necesitamos no es un ateísmo rotundo sino una lucha seria con los problemas, ninguno de ustedes está dispuesto a estudiar el cristianismo en serio y comprometerse con las ideas, es simplemente tonto y grotescamente inmoral afirmar que el cristianismo es simplemente una fuerza para el mal, como afirma Richard: más que eso, estamos en una pelea, y tenemos que hacer aliados en la lucha , no simplemente alienar a todos de buena voluntad”[86].

Sorprendentemente, Ruse aprovechó la oportunidad para criticar a Dawkins en la portada de la respuesta conjunta de Alister y Joanna McGrath a El espejismo de Dios (titulada El espejismo de Dawkins), donde Ruse afirmó:

El espejismo de Dios me avergüenza de ser ateo, y los McGrath muestran por qué”.

Ruse continuó su debate sobre las tácticas con los ateos fundamentalistas en un artículo para Skeptical Inquirer que lamentaba el estado fracturado del ateísmo frente al “creacionismo” (que para Ruse es un término que abarca la teoría del Diseño Inteligente):

“en este momento, aquellos de nosotros contra el creacionismo vivimos en una casa dividida. Un grupo está formado por los ardientes, completos ateos. No quieren tener nada que ver con el enemigo, que están dispuestos a definir como cualquier persona de inclinación religiosa, desde literalistas (como un Bautista del Sur) a deístas (como unitario), y piensan que cualquiera que piense lo contrario es tonto, equivocado, e inmoral. Miembros destacados de este grupo incluyen a Richard Dawkins… Daniel Dennett… y Jerry Coyne… El segundo grupo… contiene a aquellos que no tienen creencias religiosas, pero que piensan que uno debería colaborar con cristianos liberales [por medio de los cuales Ruse quiere decir evolucionistas teístas] contra un enemigo compartido, y que se inclinan a pensar que la ciencia y la religión son compatibles”[87].

Ruse reconoció que en este debate interno:

“La retórica es fuerte y desagradable. He acusado a Dennett de ser un matón y alguien que es un cerdo ignorante de los problemas. Me ha dicho que estoy en peligro (quizás por encima del peligro) de perder el respeto de aquellos cuyo respeto debería desear… Dawkins ha ido más allá; en su nuevo libro más vendido, El espejismo de Dios, Dawkins me compara con Neville Chamberlin, el primer ministro británico que trató de apaciguar a Adolf Hitler[88].

Ruse respondió pragmáticamente a Dawkins que: “Cuando Hitler [es decir, el “creacionismo”] atacó a Rusia [es decir, la evolución teísta], Inglaterra y Estados Unidos dieron ayuda a Stalin [es decir, a los cristianos “liberales”]. No es que les gustara especialmente Stalin, pero trabajaron según el principio de que el enemigo de mi enemigo es mi amigo[89]. Ruse terminó su artículo con un llamado a la unidad: “Fundamentalismo, creacionismo, teoría inteligente del diseño: estas son las amenazas reales. Agradar a Dios –o a ningún Dios– dejemos de luchar contra nosotros mismos y sigamos con el trabajo real que enfrentamos”[90]. Sin embargo, parece poco probable que esta petición esté dirigida por personas como el Profesor Grayling, porque Ruse señala: “La escuela Dawkins-Dennett no permite ningún compromiso. La religión es falsa. La religión es peligrosa. La religión debe combatirse en todos los sentidos. No puede haber trabajo con el enemigo [incluso los evolucionistas teístas “liberales”]. Los que como yo trabajamos con personas religiosas somos como los apaciguadores ante los nazis”[91]. Por lo tanto, una respuesta a la pregunta retórica de Grayling sobre lo que sería un ateo no fundamentalista es que serían como Michael Ruse.

“Podría ser”, le pregunta Grayling con la lengua firmemente en la mejilla, “que un ateo no fundamentalista es alguien a quien no le importa que otras personas tengan creencias profundamente falsas y primitivas sobre el universo, sobre cuya base [alerta de generalización generalizada] han pasado siglos asesinando en masa a otras personas que no tienen exactamente las mismas creencias falsas y primitivas que ellos mismos, ¿y todavía lo hacen?[92] Por supuesto que no; pero luego Grayling plantea un falso dilema. No es que los ateos como Michael Ruse no tenga en cuenta que otras personas tienen lo que consideran creencias falsas; es solo que preferirían involucrar a los creyentes en un debate inteligente y respetuoso siempre que sea posible, en lugar de emitir el equivalente ateo de una fatwa islámica a cualquiera con la temeridad de estar en desacuerdo con ellos. (Estoy tentado a escribir “en desacuerdo con sus creencias primitivas” para hacer una observación sobre el esnobismo cronológico de Grayling[93]; después de todo, el naturalismo se remonta a los filósofos presocráticos de la antigua Grecia).

¿Puede el humanismo ser religioso?

Según Grayling: “El humanismo en el sentido moderno del término es la opinión de que cualquiera que sea su sistema ético, se deriva de su mejor comprensión de la naturaleza humana y la condición humana en el mundo real”[94]. Me parece que un cristiano podría hacer esta afirmación humanista. Sin embargo, Grayling afirma que la ética humanística ‘significa que no, en su pensamiento sobre el bien y sobre nuestras responsabilidades con nosotros mismos y entre nosotros, establece datos putativos de astrología, cuentos de hadas, creencias sobrenaturalistas, animismo, politeísmo o cualquier otra herencia de las edades del pasado remoto y más ignorante de la humanidad”. Aparte de otro ejemplo evidente de esnobismo cronológico, Grayling no hace nada para justificar su afirmación sobre este punto. Por ejemplo, si uno piensa que la mejor comprensión de la naturaleza humana y la condición humana es que los humanos son la creación caída del Dios bíblico, entonces uno está naturalmente obligado a establecer datos putativos de creencias sobrenaturales en los que piensan en lo bueno. Grayling admite: “Es posible que las personas religiosas también sean humanistas”[95]; pero inmediatamente califica esta admisión al afirmar que las personas religiosas no pueden ser humanistas ‘sin incoherencias’[96]; aunque inmediatamente retira esta acusación y en su lugar afirma que las personas religiosas no pueden ser humanistas sin ‘rareza, ya que no hay un papel que desempeñar en una ética humanista por su creencia (definitoriamente religiosa) en la existencia de agentes sobrenaturales”[97]. Después de haber detenido a Grayling con respecto a su definición de religión, no tenemos que volver a hacerlo. Sin embargo, podemos observar que Grayling no hace nada para justificar su afirmación de que las creencias religiosas no tienen ningún papel en una ética que se deriva de la mejor comprensión de la naturaleza humana y la condición humana en el mundo real. En cambio, Grayling simplemente parece estar asumiendo que el naturalismo es verdadero y de ahí deducir que el humanismo debe ser naturalista.

Grayling sugiere que nosotros: “Consideremos lo que los humanistas aspiran a ser como agentes éticos”[98]. Dada la cosmovisión del humanista secular naturalista, uno podría preguntarse por qué aspiran a ser agentes éticos (no parece que Nietzsche lo apruebe), o (lo que es más importante) cómo pueden justificar la creencia en conceptos como el bien y el mal, correcto e incorrecto[99]. Grayling ni siquiera menciona estos problemas. Según Grayling, los humanistas no religiosos: “Siempre desean respetar a los demás seres humanos, gustarles, honrar sus esfuerzos y simpatizar con sus sentimientos”[100].  ¡Oh, nueva y valiente palabra que tenga tanta gente! Grayling no dice por qué Neitzsche no cuenta como humanista. Me parece que uno puede ser perdonado por derivar una impresión diferente del resto del libro de Grayling, repleto de acusaciones de retraso intelectual y el deseo de obligar a los creyentes religiosos a contradecir sus conciencias si esto les llevara a meter la nariz en la esfera pública. Y luego Grayling suelta un tañido metafísico, afirmando que: “En todos los casos, el enfoque humanista descansa en la idea de que lo que da forma a las personas es el complejo de hechos sobre la interacción entre las bases biológicas de la naturaleza humana y las circunstancias sociales e históricas de cada individuo”[101]. Se trata de un obstáculo metafísico porque equivale a una negación del libre albedrío libertario, que es un requisito previo para la responsabilidad personal, que es un requisito previo para la ética. Como no soy el profesor Grayling, al menos indicaré un argumento para esta afirmación. ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre una roca golpeándote en la cabeza y yo golpeándote en la cabeza que te lleva a considerar irracional hacer a la roca moralmente responsable, pero racional hacerme moralmente responsable? Si “yo” soy una entidad cuyo comportamiento no está conformado por otra cosa que las interacciones entre los fundamentos biológicos de mi naturaleza humana y mi situación social e histórica, entonces seguramente soy análogo a la roca (que es también una entidad del comportamiento de que está conformado por nada más que interacciones entre su naturaleza física y su entorno físico). Por lo tanto, uno podría concluir que no solo el humanismo puede ser religioso, sino que ese humanismo debería ser religioso en la pena de la autocontradicción.

Conclusión

Estoy de acuerdo con Grayling en que: “Todos los que tengan motivos seguros para sus puntos de vista no deben temer al fuerte desafío y crítica”[102]. Desafortunadamente, Grayling no ofrece casi nada por medio de un compromiso serio con los supuestos motivos de la religión o de su propia “perspectiva no religiosa”. En efecto, Against All Gods (Contra todos los dioses) debe clasificarse como una de las críticas más débiles de la religión jamás publicada. Es francamente decepcionante encontrar a un filósofo profesional, y alguien que exige “que se respeten los estándares de rigor intelectual en todos los niveles educativos”[103], fracasando tan singularmente en manejar el importante tema de la religión con algo que se acerca al rigor intelectual .Grayling sustituye a los hombres de paja, las pistas falsas y los falsos dilemas por la precisión cuidadosa que exige su tema; él sustituye las generalizaciones precipitadas y apresuradas por inferencias basadas en la evidencia; y él sustituye repetidamente la afirmación por argumento. Lo más decepcionante de todo es que Grayling defiende el doble estándar intolerante e independiente que la sociedad debería exigir y aplicar (es decir, hacer cumplir): “Un derecho para el [no religioso] a ser libre de proselitismo”[104], una demanda que lógicamente implica que el cristianismo debe ser ilegal. Lejos de que sea hora de “devolver el compromiso religioso a la esfera privada”[105] –un acto de opresión que solo puede alimentar los fuegos del fundamentalismo religioso– sugiero que ahora, más que nunca, es el momento de alentar el debate respetuoso entre personas con diferentes visiones del mundo en el terreno común de su humanidad compartida. Si un cristiano y un humanista secular no pueden ponerse de acuerdo sobre eso, entonces el futuro parece realmente sombrío. No estoy en desacuerdo con todo lo que Grayling tiene que decir. En particular, aplaudo su recomendación de que: “La idea de las buenas derrotas –aquellas en las que se aprende, o da, o permite que florezca mejor– es una importante”[106].

Artículo original 2007. Revisado 2013.

Recursos recomendados

A.C. Grayling, Against All Gods (Contra todos los dioses), (Oberon Books, 2007)

A.C. Grayling, The Meaning of Things (El Significado de las Cosas), (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001)

Wikipedia, ‘AC Grayling’ @ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._C._Grayling

A.C. Grayling y Peter S. Williams, The God Argument (El argumento de Dios): www.bethinking.org/who-are-you-god/advanced/unbelievable-ac-graylings-the-god-argument.htm

John F. Ankerberg (editor), Gary R. Habermas y Antony GN Flew, Resurrected? An Atheist & Theist Dialogue (¿Resucitado? Un diálogo ateo y teísta) , (Rowman y Littlefield, 2005)

Michael J. Behe, Darwin’s Black Box, edición, (Free Press, 2006)

Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony (Jesús y los testigos presenciales: Los Evangelios como Testimonio de un testigo ocular), (Eerdmans, 2006)

Douglas Geivett y Gary R. Habermas, In Defense of Miracles: A Comprehensive Case for God’s Action in History (En defensa de los milagros: un caso completo para la acción de Dios en la historia), (Apollos, 1997)

Paul Copan y Paul K. Moser (ed.), The Rationality of Theism (La racionalidad del teísmo), (Routledge, 2003)

J.P. Moreland, Scaling the Secular City (Escalando la ciudad secular), (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987)

J.P. Moreland, Love Your God With All Your Mind: The role of reason in the life of the soul, (Ama a tu Dios con toda tu mente: el papel de la razón en la vida del alma), (Navpress, 1997)

Alvin Plantinga, Warranted Christian Belief (Creencia Cristiana Garantizada), (Oxford, 2003)

Richard Swinburne, The Resurrection of God Incarnate (La Resurrección de Dios Encarnado), (Clarendon Press, 2003)

David Beck, “The Cosmological Argument” (El argumento cosmológico) www.4truth.net/fourtruthpbgod.aspx?pageid = 8589952710

Michael Behe, “The Lamest Attempt Yet to Answer the Challenge Irreducible Complexity Poses for Darwinian Evolution” (El intento más débil aún por responder al desafío, la complejidad irreductible plantea para la evolución darwiniana) www.idthefuture.com/2006/04/the_lamest_attempt_yet_to_answ.html

Michael Behe, “Philosophical Objections to Intelligent Design” (Objeciones filosóficas al diseño inteligente) www.arn.org/docs/behe/mb_philosophicalobjectsresponse.htm

Paul Copan, “The Moral Argument for God’s Existence” (El argumento moral para la existencia de Dios) www.4truth.net/fourtruthpbgod.aspx?pageid = 8589952712

William Lane Craig, “The existence of God and the Beginning of the Universe” (La existencia de Dios y el comienzo del universo) www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth11.html

William Lane Craig, “Contemporary Scholarship and the Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus” (Becas contemporáneas y la evidencia histórica de la resurrección de Jesús) www.leaderu.com/truth/1truth22.html

William Lane Craig, “The Problem of Miracles: A Historical and Philosophical Perspective” (El problema de los milagros: una perspectiva histórica y filosófica) www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/miracles.html

William Lane Craig, “The Indispensability of Theological Meta-Ethical Foundations for Morality” (La indisponibilidad de los fundamentos meta-éticos teológicos para la moral), www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/meta-eth.html

Gary R. Habermas, “Why I Believe the New Testament is Historically Reliable” (Por qué creo que el Nuevo Testamento es históricamente confiable) http://www.apologetics.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=165:why-i-believe-

Gary R. Habermas, “The Lost Tomb of Jesus: A Response” (La tumba perdida de Jesús: una respuesta) www.garyhabermas.com/articles/The_Lost_Tomb_of_Jesus/losttombofjesus_response.htm

Video: Robert C. Koons, “Science and Belief in God: Concord not Conflict” (Ciencia y creencia en Dios: La Concordia no Conflicto) http://webcast.ucsd.edu:8080/ramgen/UCSD_TV/7828.rm

Robert C. Koons, “A New Look at the Cosmological Argument” (Una Nueva Mirada al Argumento Cosmológico) www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/philosophy/faculty/koons/cosmo.pdf

Art Lindsley, “C.S. Lewis on Chronological Snobbery” (C.S. Lewis sobre el esnobismo cronológico) www.cslewisinstitute.org/webfm_send/596

J.P. Moreland, “The Historicity of the New Testament” (La historicidad del Nuevo Testamento) www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID = 207 & TopicID = 1 & CategoryID = 2

Video: J.P. Moreland, “Righ and Wrong as a Key to the Meaning of the Universe” (Correcto e incorrecto como clave del significado del universo) http://youtu.be/p7OKfQajrxs

Stephen C. Meyer, “Intelligent Desing is not Creationism” (El diseño inteligente no es creacionismo) www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command = view & id = 3191

Tom Price, “Faith is just about ‘trusting God’ isn’t it?” (La fe se trata solo de” confiar en Dios “¿no es así?) www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID = 132 & TopicID = 9 & CategoryID = 8

Alexander R. Pruss, “A Restricted Principle of Sufficient Reason and the Cosmological Argument” (Un principio restringido de razón suficiente y el argumento cosmológico) www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ap85/papers/RPSR.html

John G. West, “Intelligent Desing and Creationism are Just not the Same” (El diseño inteligente y el creacionismo no son lo mismo) www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command = view & id = 1329

Audio: Peter S. Williams, “The Moral Argument” (El argumento moral) www.damaris.org/cw/audio/williams_on_dawkins_moral_argument.mp3

Notas

[1] A.C. Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 7.

[2] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 37.

[3] cf. Alvin Plantinga, Warranted Christian Belief, (Oxford, 2003)

[4] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 37.

[5] Scott A. Shalkowski, “Atheological Apologetics” en R. Douglas Geivett y Brendan Sweetman (ed.), Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology (Oxford, 1992), p. 66.

[6] William L. Rowe, ‘The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism’, American Philosophical Quarterly 16 (1979).

[7] A.C. Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 29.

[8] Eric S. Waterhouse, The Philosophical Approach to Religion (Epworth Press, 1933), p 20.

[9] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 9-10.

[10] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 31.

[11] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 13.

[12] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 9.

[13] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 18.

[14] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 9.

[15] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 30.

[16] Philip J. Sampson, Six Modern Myths Challenging Christian Faith, (IVP, 2000), p. 133.

[17] William Monter, Ritual, Myth and Magic in Early Modern Europe (Brighton: Harvester, 1983), p. 67.

[18] Hugh Trevor-Roper, The European Witch-Craze of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, (Penguin, 1969), p. 37.

[19] Keith Ward, Is Religion Dangerous? (Lion, 2006), p. 7.

[20] ibid, p. 35.

[21] William Wilberforce, citado por Louis Palau, Is God Relevant? (Hodder y Stoughton, 1997), p. 185.

[22] Richard Norman, On Humanism, p. 17.

[23] Tom Price, ‘Can you teach old dog new tricks?’ @   http://abetterhope.blogspot.com/2007/03/can-you-teach-old-dog-new-tricks.html

[24] A.C. Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 15-16.

[25] J.P. Moreland, Love Your God With All Your Mind, (NavPress, 1997), p. 122.

[26] C.S. Lewis, quoted by Norman L. Geisler in the foreword to J.P. Moreland’s Scaling the Secular City (Baker, 1987).

[27] Tom Price, ‘Faith is just about “trusting God” isn’t it?’@   www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID = 132 & TopicID = 9 & CategoryID = 8

[28] Norman L. Geisler y Paul D. Feinberg, lntroduction to Philosophy – A Christian Perspective (Baker, 1997), p. 73.

[29] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 26.

[30] John Gray, ‘Sex, Atheism and Piano Legs’ in Heresies: Against Progress and Other Illusions’, (Granta, 2004), p. 45.

[31] ibid, p. 46.

[32] Piers Benn, ‘Is Atheism a Faith Position?’ Think, issue thirteen, summer 2006, p. 29.

[33] James Lazarus, ‘A reconsideration of some atheistic arguments’ (Una reconsideración de algunos argumentos ateos) @ www.iidb.org/vbb/showthread.php?t = 181970

[34] Nigel Warburton, Pensando: De la A a la Z, Segunda Edición, (Routledge, 1998), p. 19.

[35] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 46.

[36] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 36.

[37] cf. Richard Bauckham, Jesús y los testigos oculares: Los Evangelios como Testimonio de un testigo ocular, (Eerdmans, 2006); Richard Baukham, “Los testigos oculares y las tradiciones evangélicas” @ www.apollos.ws/nt-historical-reliability/BauckhamRichardJHRG1.pdf

[38] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 43.

[39] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 45.

[40] Keith Ward, ‘Evidence for the Virgin Birth’ en Gilliam Ryeland (ed.), Beyond Reasonable Doubt , (The Canterbury Press, 1991), pág. 56-57.

[41] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 28.

[42] A.C. Grayling, El significado de las cosas, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001), p. 125.

[43] Ward, “Evidence for the Virgin Birth” en Gilliam Ryeland (ed.), Beyond Reasonable Doubt, (The Canterbury Press, 1991), pág. 60.

[44] A.C. Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 34.

[45] Art Lindsley, “C.S. Lewis sobre el esnobismo cronológico” @ www.cslewisinstitute.org/pages/resources/publications/knowingDoing/2003/LewisChronologicalSnobbery.pdf

[46] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 28.

[47] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 28-29.

[48] cf. Peter S. Williams, ‘Un Cambio de Mente para Antony Flew’ @   www.arn.org/docs/williams/pw_antonyflew.htm

[49] Antony Flew, La presunción del ateísmo, (Londres: Pemberton, 1976), p. 14.

[50] Copán, “La presuntuosidad del ateísmo” @ www.rzim.org/publications/essay_arttext.php?id = 3

[51] Scott A. Shalkowski, ‘Atheological Apologetics’ en R. Douglas Geivett y Brendan Sweetman (ed.), Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology , (Oxford, 1992), p. 63.

[52] cf. Stephen C. Meyer, “El diseño inteligente no es creacionismo” @   www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command = view & id = 3191 ;

John G. West, ‘Diseño inteligente y creacionismo no son lo mismo’ @ www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command = view & id = 1329

[53] cf. Michael Behe, “Objeciones filosóficas al diseño inteligente” @ www.arn.org/docs/behe/mb_philosophicalobjectsresponse.htm ; ‘¿ El diseño inteligente es meramente y el argumento forma ignorancia?’@   www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/1186

[54] En el documento científico al que hace referencia Grayling (páginas 49, 51 y 52), cf. Michael Behe, “El intento más débil aún por responder al desafío, la complejidad irreductible se presenta para la evolución darwiniana” @ www.idthefuture.com/2006/04/the_lamest_attempt_yet_to_answ.html

[55] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 63.

[56] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 59.

[57] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 59.

[58] Alister McGrath, El ocaso del ateísmo, op cit, p. 87.

[59] Michael Ruse en David L. Hull y Michael Ruse (ed.), The Philosophy of Biology, (Oxford, 1998), p. 671.

[60] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 29.

[61] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 29.

[62] Alvin Plantinga, ‘Evolución y diseño’, James K. Beilby (ed.), Para la fe y la claridad, (Baker, 2006), p. 212.

[63] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 29.

[64] cf. Kirby Anderson, ‘Historias de la cripta: ¿Tenemos los huesos de Jesús?’@   www.probe.org/commentaries/tales-from-the-crypt-do-we-have-the-bones-of-jesus.html ;

John Ankerberg y Dillon Burroughs, “Nueve hechos que refutan la tumba perdida de Jesús ” de Discovery Channel @ www.ankerberg.com/Articles/historical-Jesus/the-Jesus-family-tomb/the-Jesus-family-tomb-9 -facts-that-desprove-discovery-channel-lost-tomb-of-jesus.htm ;

Richard Bauckham, ‘La supuesta tumba familiar de Jesús’ @ www.leaderu.com/jesus/alleged_tomb.html ; Los profesores de Biola responden a ‘The Lost Tomb of Jesus’ @ www.biola.edu/news/articles/070305_tombresponse.cfm ;

Darell Bock, “Hollywood Hype: Los Oscar y la tumba de la familia de Jesús: ¿qué comparten?”@   http://dev.bible.org/bock/node/106 ;

Rich Deem, ‘La tumba perdida de Jesús: ¿se han encontrado los huesos de Jesucristo en Jerusalén?’@   www.godandscience.org/apologetics/bones_of_jesus.html ;

Craig Evans, ‘¿La tumba de Jesús y la familia?’ @   www.craigaevans.com/tombofjesus.htm ;

Matt Gutman, ‘Bones of Contention’ (ABC News) @ http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Entertainment/story?id=2905662&page=1 ;

Gary R. Habermas, “La tumba perdida de Jesús: una respuesta” @ www.garyhabermas.com/articles/The_Lost_Tomb_of_Jesus/losttombofjesus_response.htm ;

Ben Witherington, ‘The Jesus Tomb: “Titanic” Talpiot Theory Sunk From The Start’ @ www.leaderu.com/jesus/jesustomb_benw.html ; Ben Witherington, ‘Problems Multiply For Jesus Tomb Theory’ @ www.leaderu.com/jesus/tombtheory_benw.html ;

Christianity Today, ‘Remains of the Day’ @ www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2007/februaryweb-only/109-33.0.html ;

New York Times : ‘Leaning on Theory, Colliding With Faith’ @ www.nytimes.com/2007/03/03/arts/television/03stan.html?ex = 1330578000 & en = 8def379f0b45b716 & ei = 5088 & partner = rssnyt & emc = rss ; Audio: ‘Increíble: Una respuesta a’ La tumba perdida de Jesús ” – con Ben Witherington @ www.premier.org.uk/images/radio/on_demand/button.gif

[65] A.C. Grayling, El significado de las cosas, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001), p. 7.

[66] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 15.

[67] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 17, mi cursiva.

[68] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 17.

[69] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. dieciséis.

[70] cf. Rees Mogg, ‘¿Adoptar el cambio después de 2000 años? ¡Nunca!’ @   www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/william_rees_mogg/article1329412.ece

[71] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 17.

[72] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. dieciséis.

[73] Grayling, El significado de las cosas, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001), p. 7.

[74] Grayling, El significado de las cosas, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001), p. 8.

[75] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 47.

[76] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 19.

[77] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 19.

[78] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 46.

[79] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 24.

[80] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 7.

[81] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 28.

[82] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 23.

[83] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 23.

[84] Gary Wolf, ‘La Iglesia de los No Creyentes’, Revista Wired, noviembre de 2006, p. 184 y @ www.wired.com/news/wiredmag/0,71985-0.html?tw = wn_index_1

[85] Michael Ruse @ www.uncommondescent.com/archives/844

[86] ibid.

[87] Michael Ruse, “Fighting the Fundamentalists: Chamberlin or Churchill?”, Skeptical Inquirer Volumen 31, n.º 2, marzo / abril de 2007, p. 39-40.

[88] ibid, p. 40.

[89] ibid, p. 41.

[90] ibid, p. 41.

[91] ibid, p. 40.

[92] A.C. Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 23.

[93] Art Lindsley, ‘C.S. Lewis sobre el esnobismo cronológico’ @ www.cslewisinstitute.org/pages/resources/publications/knowingDoing/2003/LewisChronologicalSnobbery.pdf

[94] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 33.

[95] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 33.

[96] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 33.

[97] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 33.

[98] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 60.

[99] Paul Copan, ‘El argumento moral para la existencia de Dios’ @ www.4truth.net/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c = hiKXLbPNLrF & b = 778665 & ct = 1264233 ;

William Lane Craig, “La indisponibilidad de los fundamentos meta-éticos teológicos para la moralidad”, @ www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/meta-eth.html ;

Luke Pollard, ‘¿La moralidad apunta a Dios?’ @   www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID = 305 & TopicID = 10 & CategoryID = 9 ;

Peter S. Williams, The Moral Argument ‘@ www.damaris.org/cw/audio/williams_on_dawkins_moral_argument.mp3 ;

JP Moreland, “Correcto e incorrecto como clave del significado del universo” @ http://webcast.ucsd.edu:8080/ramgen/UCSD_TV/8008.rm

[100] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 60.

[101] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 60.

[102] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 9.

[103] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 47.

[104] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. dieciséis.

[105] Grayling, Against All Gods, (Oberon Books, 2007), p. 47.

[106] Grayling, El significado de las cosas, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001), p. 25.

 


Blog Original: http://bit.ly/2pGbPhB

Traducido y editado por María Andreina Cerrada

By Ken Mann

The question is asked in different ways. Are science and religion compatible? Are science and faith in conflict? The answer, once one has properly defined what is meant by science and faith, is it depends. Critics of Christianity will assert, based on history, that there is an inherent conflict between science and religion and they use the trial of Galileo before the Inquisition as an “example” of the conflict. We’re told Galileo was tortured, forced to recant his belief in a heliocentric universe, and imprisoned for the remainder of his life for the heresy of advocating heliocentrism. This paper will address how aspects of this narrative are false, and others are misleading. Galileo’s conflict with the Church has been described as “… a clash of ideas⎯ between scientific claims fervently held by a small band of scientific reformers on the one hand and opposing theological doctrines supported by centuries of church tradition on the other.”[1] Galileo is described as a martyr of science because the Catholic Church was opposed to science.[2] In order to explain how Christianity and science are compatible today the Christian apologist must be able to explain how, for good or ill, they have interacted in the past. Over the course of this paper, we will see that the Galileo affair was not about science but about the authority of the Catholic Church over how to interpret the Bible. The nascent disciplines of astronomy and cosmology suffered at the hands of an entrenched and embattled institution, however, the conflict was not about truth per se, but control.

This paper addresses the myths, complexities, and lessons we can learn from Galileo’s trial. In terms of myths, there are two aspects accepted by history that are in fact false, specifically that during his trial Galileo was tortured and that he was imprisoned for the remainder of his life. In terms of complexity, there were many different factors at play that ultimately culminated in Galileo’s trial. It is simply a grotesque oversimplification to assert that this incident represents the collision between science and theological doctrines. Finally, we can learn a great deal about the conflicts in our own day between theological and scientific authorities.

In order to understand these 17th-century events, it is worthwhile to take a step back and understand the state of cosmology[3] at that time. The Church and much of Europe, since at least the 13th century, had adopted an Aristotelian cosmology. The works of Aristotle had been reintroduced into Europe, in Latin, and were eventually integrated into Church teaching.

Aristotle’s view of the cosmos was the source of the geocentric (earth-centered) view of the universe. The earth was immobile. The center of the earth is where all matter was drawn, to where things naturally moved. The sun, moon, planets, and stars all revolved around the earth on celestial spheres. The moon and beyond was a realm of eternal, changeless perfection, while the domain of matter was subject to change and decay.[4] Aristotle’s view of the cosmos was integrated into Christian theology finding concord with such passages that indicate the earth is stationary (Psalm 75:3; 93:1; 96:10; 119:90; 1Chronicles 16:30[5]) and that the sun moves (Joshua 10). In the second century, Ptolemy developed a model of the geocentric cosmos that would explain the observed motions of planets. The combination of an explanatory model for astronomical observations and the imprimatur of the Church made the geocentric view the only rational and acceptable view of the universe for over 300 years.

In 1543, Copernicus’ magnum opus, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres) was published with the encouragement and blessing of the

Catholic Church. It barely caused a whimper. It was, in fact, the writing and agitation of Galileo some 73 years later that resulted in Copernicus work being put on the Index of Prohibited Books, where it remained until 1835.[6] From its original publication until Galileo, heliocentrism did not draw the ire of Church officials for the simple reason that it was merely a theory. Copernicus offered an alternative mathematical model for the movements of the various heavenly bodies.

Neither Copernicus nor any other astronomers in the 16th century argued, at least strongly or publicly, that Aristotelian cosmology was false. In fact, prior to the invention of the telescope in the early 17th century, the only argument in favor of heliocentrism was theoretical elegance or simplicity. The predictions made by Copernicus’ model were no more accurate than those based on Ptolemy’s geocentric model.

Moving now to the early 17th century, Galileo started using the newly invented telescope to make astronomical observations. With an eight-power instrument, he started making observations of the moon, the sun, the phases of Venus, and the moons of Jupiter. His publications Starry Messenger (1610) and Letters on Sunspots (1613) launch him into the public spotlight as an advocate of heliocentrism. As Galileo tried to argue (in conversation and in letters) for the truth of heliocentrism, he was confronted with what he thought was an exegetical problem. Simply put, he believed that the scientific content of the Bible needed to be discussed in light of the observations supporting heliocentrism. According to Galileo, the Bible communicated truths about salvation that are beyond human reason. However, he also argued (as summarized by David Lindberg) that, “When the Biblical text oversteps those limits, addressing matters that are within reach of sensory experience and rational knowledge, God does not expect these God-given capacities to be abandoned… It follows that theologians, before committing themselves to an interpretation of such passages, would be well advised to examine the demonstrative arguments of scientists and natural philosophers.”[7] Galileo’s ideas about exegesis in defense of heliocentrism were eventually brought to the attention of the Inquisition. In 1616 the Holy Office formally censured two key tenets of heliocentrism: the sun is at rest (labeled “formally heretical”) and that the earth moves around the sun (labeled “erroneous in faith”).[8]

Galileo was summoned by Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino and informed him that heliocentrism “had been declared false and heretical and was not to be held or defended.”[9] Galileo was not accused of any wrongdoing, but the decision of the Inquisition ended his campaign on behalf of heliocentrism.

In 1623, with the ascendency of Maffeo Barberini to the papacy as Urban VIII, the fate of heliocentrism seemed to have changed. Barberini was a close friend and admirer of Galileo and his work in astronomy. Over the course of six meetings with the new pontiff, Galileo came to believe that he was free to write a book on heliocentrism provided he treated it as a mere hypothesis. When Galileo completed Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems in 1629, he had in fact gone beyond merely debating competing hypotheses. Instead, what he had written was “… nothing less than a powerful argument on behalf of the indubitable truth of heliocentrism; no reader could have understood it otherwise. Nor did one have to read between the lines to perceive this as Galileo’s purpose, for in the Dialogue itself he repeatedly claimed to have demonstrated the ‘truth’ of his conclusions.”[10] Despite having gone through appropriate channels within the Church prior to publishing Dialogue, its reception within the Vatican was disastrous for Galileo. In addition to his overall treatment of heliocentrism, Simplicio, “… a slow-witted Aristotelian laughing stock of the dialogue,”[11] voiced the same arguments Galileo had heard during his audiences with Urban. A letter to Florence from the Florentine ambassador describes a meeting where the pontiff “… exploded into great anger…” at the mere mention of Galileo. The pope believed Galileo had deceived him, as he clearly did not treat heliocentrism as a hypothesis.

Further, in the character Simplicio, he made the pontiff an object of ridicule.

Alienating the pope with such obvious insubordination was possibly the least of Galileo’s problems. Since Dialogue clearly advocated for the truth of heliocentrism, it violated the Congregation of the Index decree from 1616 that condemned heliocentrism as “…false and completely contrary to the Scriptures.” The same decree not only prohibited Copernicus’ book from being printed, it went on to assert that “… all other books teaching the same thing are prohibited, as the present Decree prohibits, condemns and suspends them all respectively.”[12] The Inquisition appointed a Special Commission to investigate further. In the files of the Holy Office a memorandum was discovered[13] which claimed that Galileo had been given a specific injunction by the Commissary General of the Holy Office to “relinquish altogether” his acceptance of heliocentrism and to no longer “hold, teach, or defend it in any way, either verbally or in writing.”[14] Because of the weight of all this evidence Galileo was brought to trial in Rome in April of 1633.

Having set the stage in terms of the historical context, let’s begin to look at the myths, complexities, and lessons of Galileo’s trial. The myths, things that were at one time assumed to be true are now known to be false, are tied to the outcome of the trial, specifically that he was tortured and imprisoned. Galileo was found guilty of “vehement suspicion of heresy” for his advocacy of heliocentrism in Dialogue and for denying that the Bible is a scientific authority.[15]

In any trial, the activities of the Holy Office were kept under strict secrecy. The Cardinals and those who were prosecuted never discussed the proceedings in public. Very accurate and reliable records were kept including transcripts of interrogations and even details of how the accused responded to torture.[16] However, in the case of Galileo’s trial, under explicit orders from the Urban VIII, the sentence document and the abjuration recited by Galileo were widely distributed and printed in books and newspapers. The pope wanted Galileo to serve as an object lesson for all Catholics and to demonstrate his bona fides as a staunch defender of the faith.[17] Two items from the sentence document are significant. First, it says that Galileo was subjected to “rigorous examination” (a.k.a. torture).[18] Second, that Galileo was to be imprisoned at the discretion of the Holy Office. This was understood to mean imprisoned at the Inquisition palace in Rome for an indefinite period of time.

If the sentence and abjuration had remained the only known documents, prison and torture administered by the Catholic Church would have remained the historical record.

However, letters written by Galileo and the Tuscan ambassador to Rome that became public in the late 18th century and the release of Inquisition records on the Galileo trial in the late 19th century corrected both of these myths. The Holy Office records demonstrate fairly conclusively that Galileo did not experience any physical torture. From the records themselves, there is no indication that any physical torture took place. It seems clear that it was threatened as a possibility but never actually occurred. Further, Galileo’s advanced age (69) would have precluded the possibility of torture.[19] As to Galileo’s imprisonment, from his arrival in Rome on February 13, 1633, until he left Rome on June 30th, only three days in June are unaccounted for where Galileo might have been held in prison. The rest of his time in Rome was spent at either the Tuscan embassy (the ambassador’s residence) or the prosecutor’s 6-room apartment. After spending 5 months at the home of the archbishop in Siena, Galileo returned to his own villa in December of 1633. He lived there until his death in 1642.

Turning from the outright myths, we will now address the complexities of Galileo’s conflict with the Church. These can be broken down into two categories. First, there are four factors, not generally understood from a modern perspective, which prevented the acceptance of heliocentrism. Second, there is a fundamental misconception about the nature of Galileo’s confrontation with Church.

The first problem that prevented widespread acceptance of heliocentrism was that the evidence available at the time was not sufficient. The modern view of heliocentrism is in light of what we know from science rather than what was known or could be proven during Galileo’s time. The arguments Galileo marshaled at the time supported the heliocentric view, but they were also compatible with the model put forward by Tycho Brahe.[20] Galileo was convinced that the hypothesis of heliocentrism was true, but there was not enough evidence to overturn over 300 years of adherence to Aristotelian cosmology.

Second, if the task of overturning Aristotle’s long-established cosmology was not herculean enough, Galileo’s undertaking was seemingly made impossible by his arrogant and impulsive demeanor. He was typically far more effective at making enemies than converts. It is assumed by many experts on Galileo’s trial that his fate was in some sense made certain by the various enemies he had created in the years leading up to 1633. David Lindberg concludes, “Galileo’s personality was a consistent and important factor; indeed, it seems clear that had he played his cards differently, with more attention to diplomacy, Galileo might have carried out a significant campaign on behalf of heliocentrism without condemnation.”[21]

A third impediment Galileo faced was the issue of epistemological authority. Where does knowledge of the cosmos come from? Is it available via human capacities of sense and reason? Is it only found in the scriptures? Is it some combination of the two? The prevailing view of both Catholic and Protestant theologians was that knowledge of the heavens was, in principle, unavailable to the natural sciences. The nature of the celestial realm was a divine knowledge that was inaccessible to the human intellect. Thus, the work of Copernicus and Ptolemy were merely models used to predict the locations of the planets, they were mathematical instruments and not intended as descriptions of reality. Galileo’s argument regarding heliocentrism went far beyond a debate about which model was more accurate. He believed that the heliocentric model of the universe was a description of reality. Thus, he defied conventional wisdom not only about the inaccessibility of the heavens; he also claimed that scientific observation could attain knowledge not available from the Bible.

Fourth, the argument for another epistemic authority collided, rather violently, with the Catholic Church’s stance, after the Reformation, on the interpretation of scripture. One of the decrees issued by the Council of Trent (1545 – 1563) on the interpretation of scripture said in part:

The Council decrees that, in matters of faith and morals… no one, relying on his own judgment and distorting the Sacred Scriptures according to his own conceptions, shall dare to interpret them contrary to that sense which Holy Mother Church, to whom it belongs to judge their sense and meaning, has held and does hold, or even contrary to the unanimous agreement of the Fathers.[22]

Galileo’s two-books inspired reasoning was not without support within the Church, however, the Decree issued in 1616 that heliocentrism was “contrary to Scripture” was a clear and convincing indication that the Church was going defend its authority on matters related to cosmology.

Besides the obstacles that prevented acceptance of heliocentrism, the Galileo affair is treated simplistically as a conflict between scientific rationalism and religious doctrine. In response to this assertion, consider the following: every one of the participants in this debate were Christians who accepted the authority of the Bible, were theologically informed, and could make rational arguments for their respective views on cosmology. Further, within the Church itself, there were various opinions on hermeneutics, some agreed with Galileo, others did not.

From the domain of science, among the experts in astronomy, heliocentrism was not a widely held view. In short, rather than a confrontation between science and religion, it might be more accurate to describe the Galileo affair as a conflict within science and religion.[23]

In light of all this, what really happened? Simply put, it was a confrontation over the authority of the Church, not a scientific debate. Considering the Church’s stance on who may interpret scripture and Galileo’s temperament arguing for heliocentrism, a collision was inevitable. David Lindberg offers the following one sentence summary, “The trial was about disobedience and flagrant insubordination: the issues dealt with in the decree of 1616 were not reexamined; its conclusions were merely reasserted.”[24] The merits of Galileo’s arguments were insignificant when contrasted against centuries of consensus. The authority of Aristotle’s geocentric cosmology was not going to be discarded simply because the heliocentric view was plausible. The Church chose to stake its authority on that consensus and science suffered as a result.

Finally, let us consider what lessons can be drawn from the Galileo affair. When studying history, one must always be careful not to fall into the trap of anachronism, judging events in the past through the lens of the knowledge and sensibilities of the present. When considering the heliocentric debate in context, the evidence available, and the consensus of the time, it was reasonable to support the geocentric view. Another form of temporal snobbery we should avoid is condemning the Church for how it exercised its authority. Lindberg makes the following observation about that period:

“The early seventeenth century was a time of growing absolutism in Europe, in both religious and political terms. The freedom to express dangerous ideas was as unlikely to be defended in Protestant Geneva as in Catholic Rome. The idea that a stable society could be built on general principles of free speech was defended by nobody at the time, and police and judicial constraints were therefore inevitable realities.”[25]

Another important lesson is to eschew stark, simplistic contrasts regarding such broad categories “science” and “religion.” Such conflicts are rarely as simple as the contrast between truth and error; rather they are proxies for more subtle discussions. In this case, the issue of epistemological authority was at work. It was not merely a question of how things are known (mere epistemology) but what would be considered as a source of knowledge (authority). The Church sought to defend its interpretation of the Bible as true and correct in all “matters of faith and morals.” The mistake we perceive looking back is extending such control over matters of cosmology.

In our modern era, it is widely believed that we have developed to a stage where what is actually true or false dictates what is considered knowledge. We believe we are no longer at the mercy of any bureaucracy or human institution to gain knowledge. In the 17th century, the Bible was the dominant source of knowledge about reality. What we have seen in this paper is that Galileo was tried not for rejecting the Bible but for challenging the Church’s sole authority to interpret the Bible. Today, the Church (Protestant and Catholic) has been eclipsed by science as the preeminent (or perhaps only) source of knowledge for mankind. In reality, however, the Church and institutional science have merely switched roles over the last 350 years. Today, the fields of science that attempt to explain the origins and development of life are trapped in a dogmatic devotion to an idea imagined over 150 years ago. Despite an overwhelming body of evidence to the contrary, neo-Darwinism is adhered to dogmatically as the only explanation for the development of life. As discussed in the film Expelled and numerous intelligent design blogs, advocating dangerous ideas that contradict the reigning consensus is punished, not with torture or imprisonment, rather the destruction of academic careers. Perhaps that is the strongest lesson we can learn from history; it always repeats itself.

Bibliography

Blackwell, Richard J. Behind the scenes at Galileo’s trial: including the first English translation of Melchior Inchofer’s Tractatus syllepticus. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008.

Ferngren, Gary B., ed. Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.

Lindberg, David C., and Ronald L. Numbers, eds. When Science and Christianity Meet. 1st ed. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 2003.

Numbers, Ronald L. Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion. 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.

Notes

[1] David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., When Science and Christianity Meet, 1st ed. (Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 2003), 33.

[2] Gary B. Ferngren, ed., Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 105. Galileo and the Catholic Church Ken Mann.

[3] Cosmology being the study of the nature or composition of the universe, the attempt to understand how the universe works.

[4] It is outside of the scope of this paper to address the “Copernican Principle” that supposedly demoted humanity from the center of the universe. In short, it would be accurate to say that in ancient Greek cosmology the Earth was the sump of the universe. This is amply, and metaphysically, expressed in Dante’s Inferno.

[5] Richard J Blackwell, Behind the scenes at Galileo’s trial: including the first English translation of Melchior Inchofer’s Tractatus syllepticus (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008), 115.

[6] Lindberg and Numbers, When Science and Christianity Meet, 47.

[7] Ibid., 46.

[8] Ibid., 47.

[9] Ibid., 49.

[10] Ibid., 51.

[11] Ibid., 52.

[12] Blackwell, Behind the scenes at Galileo’s trial, 4.

[13] It is contended by Blackwell (Behind the scenes at Galileo’s trial, page 6) that the specific memo was fraudulent in some fashion. That it was derived from a letter Galileo received from Cardinal Bellarmini, but altered to make writing Dialogue a clear example of insubordination.

[14] Blackwell, Behind the scenes at Galileo’s trial, 5.

[15] Ronald L. Numbers, Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion, 1st ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), Kindle Location 757–760.

[16] Blackwell, Behind the scenes at Galileo’s trial, 7.

[17] Numbers, Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion, Kindle Location 766.

[18] Ibid., Kindle Location 768–775.

[19] Ibid., Kindle Location 795–843.

[20] In Brahe’s model of the solar system, the earth was still at rest with the sun in motion around the earth, however, all the planets orbited the sun.

[21] Lindberg and Numbers, When Science and Christianity Meet, 57.

[22] Ibid., 45.

[23] Ibid., 58.

[24] Ibid., 54.

[25] Ibid., 59.

By Ken Mann

Think Week: The Foundations of Science Found in Christian Theism, 1

What are the foundations of science? This series of posts will look at five presuppositions of science. These presuppositions cannot be established by science: Rather, they must be in place before science can even begin. There are others, but this series will be confined to those firmly rooted in Christianity. After describing the presuppositions, we will look at the explanations or grounding that can be found in the worldviews of Christianity and naturalism.

Five Presuppositions

A Real World

First, we must assume the physical world is in fact real. It exists independent of our perceptions or theories about it. This is in contrast to any worldview or religion that denies the existence of reality. If you believed everything you experienced as physical reality was merely an illusion, or a dream in the mind of God, or the product of a malevolent artificial intelligence, why would you bother to study it?

An Orderly World

Supposing there exists a real world that exists outside of our mental lives, why should we expect it to be reliable? This assumption is thoroughly ingrained into science. Science discovers “laws of nature” that are fixed descriptions of reality that cannot change or be violated. Further, any science that looks at the past (e.g., astronomy, cosmology or geology) requires whatever principles or laws of nature we discover today must have been the same in the past.

A Continuing World

“The sun will come out tomorrow…” or so goes that optimistic song from the musical Annie.

Really? Why are we so certain that is the case? The inferences everyone makes about the future being like the past are sometimes referred to as the uniformity of nature. Science, perhaps more than any other discipline relies on the truth of such inferences. If an experiment that confirms some law or principle worked yesterday, it will also work in the future.

An Understandable World

Given all of the assumptions above, there are still a few pieces missing. Is it possible to understand the world? This actually entails two assumptions that work together to make science possible. First, do our senses and minds accurately perceive reality? How do we know that is the case? One could argue we can trust our senses because everyone seems to perceive the same phenomena. However, that would only demonstrate the uniformity of human experience, not the accuracy of our perceptions. A further and related assumption is whatever order or structure we assume exists in nature is accessible and comprehensible to the human mind.

An Expressible World

The fifth and final presupposition we will consider relates to the capacity of mathematics to

describe the world. The laws of nature were written in the language of mathematics. This sentiment is attributed to Galileo but is far more mysterious today than Galileo could have imagined. While this topic alone could encompass an entire paper, allow me to make an observation and offer an example to explain this assumption.

The type of mathematics in view here is not the geometry of Euclid or the algebra refined by the ancient Muslim world. Rather, we are referring to a rigorous system of thought, which is completely abstract. For example, we exist in a world with three physical dimensions. In contrast, mathematics can describe and manipulate conceptual systems that have almost innumerable dimensions. It is simultaneous beautiful to the practitioner and impenetrably complex to the uninitiated.

An example of applied mathematics, really an entire class of examples, is the numerous times that abstract mathematical concepts like symmetry have not only described experimental results but have even guided experimental research.

Why is such a correspondence possible? Arguably, the history of science is built upon the success and coherence of mathematics describing aspects of physical reality. This was an assumption from the beginning of science that continues to be foundational to the nature of science.

In the next post, we will consider how these presuppositions are explained or grounded within Christianity and the worldview of naturalism.

Biography

Carlson, Richard F., Wayne F. Frair, Gary D. Patterson, Jean Pond, Stephen C. Meyer, and

Howard J. Van Till. Science & Christianity: Four Views. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2000.

Collins, C. John. Science and Faith: Friends or Foes?. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2003.

DeWeese, Garrett J. Doing Philosophy as a Christian. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2011.

Deweese, Garrett J. Philosophy Made Slightly Less Difficult: A Beginner’s Guide to Life’s Big

Questions. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2005.

Gould, Stephen Jay. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life. New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 1999.

Hume, David. “The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.” http://www.gutenberg.org/files/9662/9662-h/9662-h.htm (accessed April 14, 2015).

Moreland, J. P. Christianity and the Nature of Science: A Philosophical Investigation. 2nd ed.

Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1999.

Moreland, J. P., and William Lane Craig. Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview. IVP Academic, 2003.

Numbers, Ronald L. Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion. 1st ed.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.

Pearcey, Nancy. The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy. Wheaton, IL:

Crossway Books, 1994.

Stark, Rodney. For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-

Hunts, and the End of Slavery. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.

The Scriptures tell us to “Be angry, and yet do not sin.” Frank discusses anger, what made Jesus angry and what should make us angry. Is there such a thing as “righteous anger”?

Every year Frank goes to Israel with a small group, and they meet with famous Archaeologist Eli Shukron. They travel across Israel visiting amazing sites full of evidence that confirms Biblical Truth. In this podcast, Frank shares his experience and gives profound insights that he gathered during his latest Israel Tour.

 

 

Part 2:

Most modern prejudice against biblical miracle reports depends on David Hume’s argument that uniform human experience precluded miracles. Yet current research shows that human experience is far from uniform. In fact, hundreds of millions of people today claim to have experienced miracles. Frank interviews New Testament scholar Craig Keener not only about the reliability of the miracle eyewitness accounts of Gospels and Acts but also documented modern-day miracles. The evidence will leave with more than just something to think about.

Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts
by Craig S. Keener
Link: http://a.co/irMXMQs

 

 

by Natasha Crain

Over the last few months since Talking with Your Kids about God came out, I’ve heard from a lot of parents who especially love the conversation guides provided in the book. Every chapter has one of these guides to help parents have a conversation with their kids about that chapter’s content. There’s an easy conversation starter to get kids thinking (“Open the Conversation”) and several questions to help you dig in deeper (“Advance the Conversation”). For parents with younger kids, it can be enough to just use the question from “Open the Conversation” to hit a couple of key points from the chapter on the way to school in the morning!

One of the most valuable parts of each chapter’s conversation guide is in the section, “Apply the Conversation.” This section features a quote from a skeptic that pertains to the chapter’s subject. This gives you and your kids the opportunity to practice applying what you just learned by developing a response. I didn’t provide sample answers to these in the book, as they’re intended to get you thinking on your own!  However, I’ve received so many requests for sample responses that I’ve started to write them, and I’ll be sharing them here on the blog in five separate posts over time (one post for each of the five book sections).

Today I’m sharing sample responses for Part 1: The Existence of God (6 chapters). I want to emphasize three things before you read these.

First, there are a lot of possible ways to effectively respond to any of these skeptics’ quotes! Don’t consider these answers to be the “right” answers.

Second, all of these responses are based on the chapter content itself. There’s much more that could be said, but I’m only including concepts based on what your kids would learn from reading the chapters.

Third, encourage your kids (if old enough) to try writing their own response after you talk about the chapter’s content. Writing responses really helps kids to flush out their thoughts and process the material. With my daughter’s permission, I’m sharing her response to the chapter 2 skeptic in that section below as an example.

Chapter 1: What Can We Learn about God from Nature?

Skeptic’s Quote 

Atheist author Dan Barker says, “I am an atheist because there is no evidence for the existence of God. That should be all that needs to be said about it: no evidence, no belief.” Based on what you learned in this chapter when someone says there’s “no evidence” for God, what questions could you ask to clarify what that person means?

Sample Response

Evidence is a body of facts that require human interpretation. In other words, evidence itself doesn’t say anything. Humans can all look at the same evidence and come to different conclusions due to factors like our varied assumptions, available information, and motivations. As such, there will always be multiple possible explanations for the evidence we see in the world around us. With that as context, I’d like to ask a few questions about what you mean when you say there’s “no evidence” for God.

First, when you say God, are you generally referring to the existence of any supernatural being, or are you referring specifically to the God of the Bible? Second, when you say there’s no evidence for God’s existence, are you saying that there’s no evidence that could possibly be relevant to the question of God’s existence, or that there’s no evidence which you believe is best explained by the existence of God? Finally, what kind of evidence would you expect there to be if a supernatural being existed?

Chapter 2: Where Did the Universe Come From?

Skeptic’s Quote

In an online forum, a person asked how atheists can argue that the universe came from nothing. An atheist replied, “Personally I do not claim that the universe ‘came from’ anything at all and it did not ‘appear.’ The universe just is… it needs no creation story.” Based on what you learned from this chapter, how would you respond to this person?

Sample Response

I’d like to understand better what you mean when you say the universe “just is” and that it didn’t come from “anything at all.” Do you mean that you believe the universe is eternal, or that it had a beginning but its beginning doesn’t require an explanation?

[If the response is that the universe is eternal…]

While many people before the 20th century agreed that the universe is eternal, scientific evidence mounted in the 1900s that the universe actually had a beginning. For example, in the 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered through the world’s largest telescope at the time that galaxies are moving away from us, like spots on an inflating balloon. He and other scientists realized that this expansion implied there was a beginning to the universe (if you rewind the process of something expanding, you logically arrive at a beginning point). Through this and many other discoveries in the 1900s, scientists came to the consensus that the universe began to exist and is not eternal.

The reason that this is a significant point to consider is that an eternal universe, as you say, wouldn’t have “come from” anything at all—it wouldn’t have had a beginning. But if the universe did have a beginning, as the scientific evidence overwhelmingly shows, we have to ask what caused it to exist. We know that nothing in the universe pops into existence without a cause, so it defies our experience to suppose that the universe itself did. Something or someone supernatural—beyond nature—must have caused it to exist. In order to create space, time, and matter, the cause would have to be spaceless, timeless, immaterial, and uncaused itself. This doesn’t tell us the cause is synonymous with the God of the Bible, but it’s consistent with Him.

[If the response is that the universe began to exist but doesn’t require an explanation…]

We know that nothing in the universe pops into existence without a cause, so it defies our experience to suppose that the universe itself did. If you are claiming that the universe indeed popped into existence from nothing despite this knowledge, why have you concluded that’s the best explanation for it? To simply assert that something doesn’t “need a creation story” is not a replacement for looking at this evidence and determining the best explanation. I could similarly claim that my computer monitor doesn’t need a creation story, but that doesn’t negate the fact that it does indeed have one. Given what we know, the best explanation for the beginning of the universe is that there was something or someone supernatural—beyond nature—that must have caused it to exist. In order to create space, time, and matter, the cause would have to be spaceless, timeless, immaterial, and uncaused itself. This doesn’t tell us the cause is synonymous with the God of the Bible, but it’s consistent with Him.

[As an aside, here is my 9-year-old daughter’s response after we studied the chapter the first time. While she doesn’t get every detail exactly right, it’s a great start! I love her first line, as that’s the crux of the issue.]

Chapter 3: Where Did Life Come From?

Skeptic’s Quote

A person commenting on an online article said, “Had [fine-tuning] not occurred…life here would either not exist, or it would be different. That doesn’t mean there’s some big fairy who made it happen. Just because we survived on this planet does not mean a god made the planet for us.”

Sample Response

You are correct that “just because” we are on this planet, we shouldn’t necessarily believe that a god (the biblical God or any other supernatural being) put us here. I’m not assuming that’s the case, just as you shouldn’t assume it’s the case that a supernatural being did not put us here. We both should look at the available evidence and consider the best explanation for what we see.

The fine-tuning that we’re talking about is extensive in scope–over 150 parameters of a planet, its planetary companions, its moon, its star, and its galaxy have been identified that must have values falling within narrowly defined ranges for physical life of any kind to exist. The probability of those factors individually taking a precise value and simultaneously taking those values is astronomically low (by some estimates, the probability that even one life-supporting body would occur anywhere in the universe is less than 1 chance in 10 to the 282nd power). Even most atheist scientists acknowledge that the universe at least appears to be finely tuned. The question, then, is: What is the best explanation for this remarkable finding? No one is suggesting a “fairy” made it happen, so let’s set aside facetious explanations and have a serious discussion. The real conversation is whether this fine-tuning is a product of chance or intelligence. To be clear, no one is claiming that the intelligence is necessarily the God of the Bible, so we can also set aside any preconceived notions about who He is. We are only considering whether what we see is more consistent with a series of chance events or with the product of intelligence. Given the delicate fine-tuning that has been identified, I think it’s far more reasonable to believe that it’s the result of a purposeful intelligence beyond nature. Why do you believe a better explanation is chance?

Finally, suggesting that life just wouldn’t exist to witness fine-tuning had it not happened is not an explanation—it’s just a fact. It doesn’t address whether chance or intelligence is the best explanation for the occurrence. And speculating that other kinds of life (non-carbon-based) may have existed instead if the universe was structured differently doesn’t address the fact that much of the fine-tuning we see is necessary for the universe to even exist in the first place. This has nothing to do with the specific kinds of life that may or may not develop.

Chapter 4: Where Did Our Moral Understanding Come From?

Skeptic’s Quote

“Do we really need religion in this day and age? If you know the difference between right and wrong, why do you need religion? If you can show respect, why do you need religion? If you can make a positive difference in someone’s life, why do you need religion? What matters is how you treat someone. Put a smile on their faces. It’s that easy.”

Sample Response

Your questions all assume that religions only exist to provide moral rules for living. To be sure, almost every religion includes moral directives. However, religions also make many other truth claims about things such as where we came from, why we’re here, who we are, and where we’re going. Additionally, religions make logically contradictory claims, so they can’t all be true at the same time (for example, in Christianity, Jesus is the exclusive path to God, and in Islam, he is not).

That leaves us with two possibilities: 1) no religion is true (they are all manmade ideas) or 2) one religion is true. Reading between the lines, you seem to believe the first possibility since you associate religion with a past “day and age” (in other words, you’re assuming religious beliefs are something cultures outgrow as they become more sophisticated). At the same time, you seem to assume that right and wrong in fact exist. If you do believe that there are things that are right or wrong for all people, and not just a matter of personal opinion, then you are acknowledging the existence of what would be called objective moral values. On that, I completely agree with you. I think it’s our deepest human intuition that things like child kidnapping, rape, and torturing someone for fun are wrong, regardless of anyone’s opinion to the contrary. Where we differ is on the implications of that fact. I do not believe that there can be objective moral values if God doesn’t exist. Let me explain.

If objective moral values exist, we have to ask where those values would come from. In a world that is made of nothing more than matter (physical “stuff”), there can be no right or wrong for all people because there is no moral authority. No one could say what anyone should or shouldn’t do because everything would be a matter of opinion. For example, in such a world, you couldn’t say that “what matters is how you treat someone” (unless you are only stating that as your own opinion and aren’t suggesting that’s an obligation for all people). But if objective moral values and duties do exist, that points to a higher-than-human moral authority; moral laws require a moral lawgiver.

Does that mean the moral authority is the God of the Bible specifically? Not necessarily. Knowing that requires a consideration of the evidence for the truth of the Bible. But if that evidence leads us to conclude that the Bible, and therefore Christianity, is true (possibility 2 above), then there’s much more than moral directives at stake: Jesus is the exclusive savior of the world and only by trusting in him will we have eternal life.

Chapter 5: What is the Difference Between God and a Flying Spaghetti Monster?

Skeptic’s Quote

Atheist and bestselling author Richard Dawkins says, “I have found it an amusing strategy, when asked whether I am an atheist, to point out that the questioner is also an atheist when considering Zeus, Apollo, Amon Ra, Mithras, Baal, Thor, Wotan, the Golden Calf and the Flying Spaghetti Monster. I just go one god further.”

Sample Response

By grouping the biblical God with all of these fictional beings, I understand you’re suggesting that there’s no difference between them—those “gods” don’t exist, just as the biblical God doesn’t exist. But simply claiming that the biblical God belongs on a list with fictional beings isn’t a “strategy” for demonstrating He’s fictional as well. It’s simply an assertion based on the assumption that there’s no evidence that any of these beings—including the biblical God—exist. It’s important to acknowledge, however, that theists do believe there is evidence for God’s existence and are not blindly guessing that He exists; it’s not a foregone conclusion that there’s no evidence for God and theists are happy to believe anyway. Rather, theists are looking at a set of facts about the universe and are asserting that the best explanation for those facts is the existence of God. Atheists are looking at the same set of facts and are asserting that there are better natural explanations for those facts. We can legitimately disagree over the interpretation of the evidence, but it’s disingenuous to imply or explicitly claim that theists aren’t basing their beliefs on any evidence at all.

Chapter 6: How Much Evidence Do We Need to Be Confident God Exists?

Skeptic’s Quote

When an agnostic college student was asked what would be compelling reasons for him to believe that the God of the Bible exists, he said, “I would have to say unambiguous, direct evidence…Some people will use their explanation for God existing as things we don’t know… [like] the arguments [that] everything is so fine-tuned, but that doesn’t do much for me. I would very much prefer to have actual, direct evidence of somebody saying, ‘This directly points to God Himself coming down and speaking.’ And at that point, I’d have to verify with someone that I’m not hallucinating…It has to be some direct evidence of God, not an extrapolation of evidence from something else.”

Sample Response

I understand your desire to have God reveal Himself in a very personal, direct way to every individual. I would love that too! However, we should acknowledge that whether or not God chooses to reveal Himself according to our personal preferences has no bearing on whether or not He actually exists. Just as a detective doesn’t get to choose what kind of evidence he has to work with, we don’t get to choose how an all-knowing, all-powerful God would reveal Himself if He exists. Rather, we have to consider the evidence in the world around us and determine what the best explanation is for that evidence.

I know you said you would “prefer” other kinds of evidence than the fine-tuning of the universe, but the fact remains that our universe and planet are precisely structured to support life. We can’t shrug our shoulders at that just because we want other evidence; we have to ask ourselves what we can best infer from that reality. We also have other pieces of evidence to consider—such as the universe having a beginning (which requires a cause from outside of nature), the origin and complexity of life, and the innate moral understanding humans seem to have. In each of these cases (which we could discuss further), the best explanation given what we know from the evidence is the existence of a universe-creating, life-designing, moral law-giving being outside of nature.

Does that leave us with absolute certainty about His existence? No…but we don’t look for that level of certainty with anything in life. We trust based on what we have good reason to believe is true.

And does that tell us this being is the God of the Bible? Not necessarily. It’s certainly consistent with Him, but we would need to look at the evidence for the truth of the Bible to connect them. This, of course, is important to consider—especially since you said you’d like evidence that “directly points to God Himself coming down and speaking.” Christians believe God did exactly that in the person of Jesus Christ. We have compelling evidence that the Gospels of the New Testament were written by or based on eyewitness testimony of those who knew Jesus personally. If we can determine that these witnesses are reliable, then we have good reason to trust their testimony that the kind of evidence you happen to want is exactly what God has given us (albeit 2,000 years ago). Would you like to talk more about the reliability of the Gospels?

If you enjoyed reading these responses, please share this post!

Click here to get your own copy of  Talking with Your Kids about God, or find it at your local bookstore.

 


Original Blog Source: http://bit.ly/2Hqw4fd

By Evan Minton

In the previous blog post, I explained what the minimal facts approach was, and how it employed standard historical criterion to the New Testament text rather than it being a “Thus sayeth The Lord” approach. The New Testament is used, but only as an ancient set of documents, not as scripture. Additionally, the minimal facts approach employs a two-step process (1) Determining the facts to be explained and (2) Determining the best explanation of those facts. At this stage of the game, we are determining the facts to be explained.
Of the 5 minimal facts that there are, the first one is this: Jesus died by Roman crucifixion. What historical evidence is there to establish this as a historical fact?

Reason 1: Jesus’ Death By Crucifixion is multiply attested
Jesus’ death by Roman crucifixion is overwhelmingly multiply attested. It is mentioned in 4 secular sources, the synoptic gospels, John’s gospel, and Paul’s epistles.
Source 1: Josephus 

The first-century Jewish historian named Flavius Josephus (37-100 A.D) wrote about Jesus’ crucifixion in his book Antiquities Of The Jews in book 18. Josephus wrote: “Now, there was about this time, Jesus, a wise man, if it is lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ; and when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at first did not forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him; and the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.”  

Here we have a first century, non-Christian historian saying that a man named Jesus existed, drew a crowd of people who listened to His teachings, but was killed by Roman crucifixion under the governor Pontius Pilate at the request of “some of the principal men among us” which we can infer to be the Jewish Sanhedrin. This is historical evidence for the crucifixion of Jesus coming from a source with no theological ax to grind.

Now, some skeptics will object that this passage, known as “The Testimonium Flavianum,” really isn’t good historical evidence for the crucifixion because the passage seems to have been interpolated by a Christian scribe. I would agree that it has clearly been interpolated by Christian scribes as would a large number of historians and scholars who study ancient history. We have no evidence that Josephus ever became a Christian, so it would highly unlikely that he would say things like “If it be lawful to call him a man” for such a sentence implies that Jesus was more than human, or that Josephus would say “He was the Christ” as this is an explicit declaration that Jesus is the Messiah, a statement only a Christian would make. What’s worse is that near the very end of this passage, Josephus says that Jesus rose from the dead! Again, only Christians believe Jesus rose from the dead. Josephus, being a non-Christian, would never make these statements. This passage was obviously altered by a scribe who did believe these things; a Christian scribe.

But while I agree with the skeptic that the Testimonium Flavianum was altered by a Christian, I don’t believe it follows that we can’t use this passage as extra-biblical evidence for the death of Jesus. The majority of scholars today hold the position that The Testimonium Flavianum was only partially interpolated. That is to say; most of the passage is legitimate (it’s not like a Christian scribe made the entire Testimonium Flavianum up, but only certain phrases were inserted by a Christian scribe. There are two primary arguments that historians give for adopting this “Partial Interpolation” view.

*When You Remove The Obvious Christian Additions, The Passage Remains Coherent

Christopher Price wrote “Perhaps the most important factor leading most scholars to accept the partial-authenticity position is that a substantial part of the TF reflects Josephan language and style. Moreover, when the obvious Christian glosses — which are rich in New Testament terms and language not found in the core — are removed or restored to their original the remaining core passage is coherent and flows well. We can be confident that there was a minimal reference to Jesus… because once the clearly Christian sections are removed, the rest makes good grammatical and historical sense. The peculiarly Christian words are parenthetically connected to the narrative; hence they are grammatically free and could easily have been inserted by a Christian. These sections also are disruptive, and when they are removed the flow of thought is improved and smoother.”[1]

I think that Price is right. Compare the clearly interpolated version of the Testimonimum Flavianum which I included above with the version below:

“Now, there was about this time, Jesus, a wise man, for he was a doer of wonderful works,–a teacher of such men as receiving the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him, and the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.”  

You can see that the flow of thought isn’t bothered by the removal of the obvious Christian additions. How often is it that you can erase whole sentences from a paragraph and still have it make complete sense? Not often. On this basis, therefore, it’s highly probable that there was an original passage about Jesus’ crucifixion and it did not include phrases that expressed belief in his messiahship and resurrection.

*The Reference to James the Brother of Jesus Suggests an Earlier Reference to Jesus

Later on in Josephus’ writings, Josephus makes a reference to Jesus’ brother James and records his martyrdom at the hands of the Jewish Sanhedrin. While the Testimonium Flavianum is hotly debated, I know of no scholar who doubts the validity of Josephus’ reference to James. The reference to James’s Martyrdom increases the likelihood that the Testimonium Flavianum is also valid. In Josephus’ reference to James, he refers to Jesus as “the so-called Christ” without further explanation. That’s all he says. All he says about James is that he’s the brother of “Jesus, the so-called Christ.” In the passage about James, Josephus doesn’t go into any explanation of who Jesus was, what He did, no claims of Him dying and rising from the dead, no mention of any miracles, or anything like that. The only thing Josephus says about Jesus in this latter passage is that He’s James’ brother. What this implies is that Josephus presupposed that his readers already knew who he was referring to. But why would Josephus make such a presupposition? If The Testmonium Falvianum is legitimate, then it makes sense why Josephus assumes his readers already knew who he was talking about; i.e. because He already briefly explained who Jesus was and what He did earlier.

For these and other reasons, most scholars think that the Testimonium Flavianium is an authentic passage. If it’s an authentic passage, then we can certainly use it as evidence for the existence and crucifixion of Jesus. However, even if the Testimonium Flavianum couldn’t be used, that wouldn’t hurt our case very much as we would still many other sources that record the event, as you’ll see below.

Source 2: Tacitus 

Tacitus was a Roman historian writing in the early second century. In the 15th volume of his work Annals, Tacitus recounts the terrible burning down of Rome by Emperor Nero and mentions how he tried to get the suspicions off of himself and onto the Christians by unleashing a terrible persecution against them. It is in this passage that he makes a reference to Jesus’ crucifixion. The Annals of Tacitus dates to AD 115.  Tacitus writes “Christus, the founder of the name, was put to death by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea in the reign Of Tiberius…” (Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, 15:44)

Source 3: Mara Bar Serapion

Mara Bar-Serapion was a Syriac stoic philosopher in the Roman province of Syria. At some point, he was arrested, and while in prison, he wrote a letter to his son. In this letter, mentions how wise teachers who were persecuted and killed for their teachings were eventually avenged by God. He rhetorically asked what the Athenians gained from putting Socrates to death and then mentioned how famine and plague came upon them, for example. As for Jesus, Mara wrote: “What did the Jews gain from murdering their wise king? It was after that that their kingdom was abolished.”[2] 

About this passage, Josh and Sean McDowell write “Though Mara never uses Jesus’ name, we can be certain he is referring to him because no one else at that point in history would fulfill the requirements of being known as a “wise king” who was killed by the Jews shortly before they were driven from the land. Jesus is obviously in view.”[3]  

Source 4: Lucian Of Samosata 

Lucian Of Samosata was a second-century Greek satirist. In one of his works, he wrote of the early Christians as follows: “The Christians… worship a man to this day—the distinguished personage who introduced their novel rites, and was crucified on that account…” (Lucian of Samosata, from the book The Passing Peregrinus)

Source 5: The Synoptic Gospels

Everyone knows that the synoptic gospels (i.e. Matthew, Mark, and Luke) refer to the crucifixion of Jesus, so I don’t see any need to unpack this sub-subsection any further. I will clarify one thing though; the reason I’m throwing the synoptic gospels together as a single source is that many scholars believe that Luke borrowed material from Matthew who in turn borrowed from Mark. There is some good evidence that this is the case, such as the fact that there are passages in the Synoptics that read identically to one another.

Source 6: The Gospel Of John 

The gospel of John likewise tells us that Jesus died by Roman crucifixion. Most scholars believe that John was writing independently of the other 3 gospels. Therefore, I treat John as an independent source.

Source 7: The Epistles Of Paul 

Paul’s epistles mention the crucifixion of Jesus.

In all, we have at least 7 early sources that state that Jesus died by Roman Crucifixion. 4 of those sources are secular in nature, and 3 of them come from The New Testament.

According to the principle of multiple attestations, this makes it extremely, extremely probable that Jesus’ death on a Roman cross at the hands of Pontius Pilate was a real event of history. The principle of multiple attestations says that if you find any event mentioned in two or more sources, it is more likely that the event actually occurred. This is because the more and more independent sources an event is mentioned in, the less and less likely it is to be made up. Think about it: how likely is it that SEVEN INDEPENDENT SOURCES all made up the same fictional story? Seven independent historians! Do you honestly expect me to believe that seven independent writers all just happened to make up the same thing? That is statistically impossible! It is statistically impossible for 7 independent writers to all make up the same event and treat it as history!

Jesus’ death by Roman crucifixion is multiply, multiply, multiply attested, and this makes it extremely probable that the event actually occurred. If this criterion of authenticity were the only one this minimal fact passed, it would be enough to conclude it occurred.

Paul Maier, retired distinguished professor of ancient history at Western Michigan University said “Many facts in the ancient world are established on one source. Two or three sources often make an event impregnable.”[4]  Two sources? You can’t beat it. That’s how source material works in ancient history. Meyer says two independent sources make the historical event “impregnable.” But we don’t have two sources here; we have seven!

Reason 2: Jesus’ Crucifixion Is Enemy Attested 

Moreover, not only is Jesus’ death by crucifixion multiply attested in seven independent documents, but it’s also enemy attested. Those who are your enemies are not likely to say things to help your cause.  People who are hostile to you are not going to say things to make you look good or to bolster your cause.  We have enemy attestation when it comes to Jesus’ crucifixion. Neither Tacitus nor Lucian Of Samosata was friendly to Christianity. In Tacitus’ account, he calls Christianity a “pernicious superstition”! Lucian was ridiculing Christians in the very same passage in which he affirms that Jesus died by crucifixion! So, in addition to multiple attestations in seven independent sources, we have enemy attestation in two of those sources!

Reason 3: The Principle Of Historical Fit 

Moreover, the principle of historical fit comes into play here. We know for a fact from the writings of ancient first-century authors like Josephus, Tacitus, and even Archeology (e.g. the Yehohannan discovery from 1975), that Romans crucified people back in the first century. And we know that one of those reasons was in the case of treason. Jesus being crucified on the grounds of claiming to be the Messiah fits right in with what we know of Roman executions.

Reason 4: Only Women Had The Guts To Stick With Jesus In His Final Hours

If you were making up a story of any kind, you most likely wouldn’t depict yourself, your friends, or people you respected in a bad way. You wouldn’t make up lies about them that hurt them or made them look bad. If you were going to lie, you’d make up things to help them or to make them look good. This is why the principle of embarrassment counts in favor of an event’s historicity. The principle of embarrassment gives us good grounds to believe the crucifixion of Jesus occurred in three different ways.

John 19 records Jesus’ crucifixion. However, John writes “So the soldiers took charge of Jesus. Carrying his own cross, he went out to the place of the Skull (which in Aramaic is called Golgotha). There they crucified him, and with him two others—one on each side and Jesus in the middle. Pilate had a notice prepared and fastened to the cross. It read: Jesus of Nazareth, the king of the jews. Many of the Jews read this sign, for the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city, and the sign was written in Aramaic, Latin, and Greek. The chief priests of the Jews protested to Pilate, ‘Do not write ‘The King of the Jews,’ but that this man claimed to be king of the Jews.’ Pilate answered, ‘What I have written, I have written.’ When the soldiers crucified Jesus, they took his clothes, dividing them into four shares, one for each of them, with the undergarment remaining. This garment was seamless, woven in one piece from top to bottom.  ‘Let’s not tear it,’ they said to one another. ‘Let’s decide by lot who will get it.’ This happened that the scripture might be fulfilled that said, ‘They divided my clothes among them and cast lots for my garment.’  So this is what the soldiers did. Near the cross of Jesus stood his mother, his mother’s sister, Mary the wife of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene. When Jesus saw his mother there, and the disciple whom he loved standing nearby, he said to her, ‘Woman, here is your son,’ and to the disciple, ‘Here is your mother.’ From that time on, this disciple took her into his home.” – John 19:16-27

John records that 3 women stayed with Jesus during his final hours; Jesus’ mother Mary, Mary Magdalene, and Mary, the wife of Clopas (there were a lot of women named Mary in first century Israel). The only male disciple that John records as sticking with Jesus is himself. According to Mark’s account, the rest of the disciples all ran away in terror when the Romans came to arrest Jesus (Mark 14:43-52). The fact that most of the disciples abandoned Jesus in his darkest hour is not something the gospel writers would have made up. It gets worse when you consider that women are mainly those stay behind. In first century Jewish culture, women were considered second-class citizens, and Josephus says that they weren’t even allowed to witness in a Jewish court of law (more on this in the next blog post). In light of this fact, how remarkable it is that it is women who stay by Jesus’ side in his final moments rather than the male disciples! If John were making this up, he would have included at least a few other of the male apostles with him. Yet John puts the women in a good light and most of the men in a bad light! The women are the brave ones, and the men are cowards!

Reason 5: Jesus Was Killed In The Most Humiliating Way 

As I said above, If you were making up a story of any kind, you most likely wouldn’t depict yourself, your friends, or people you respected in a bad way. The gospel writers, whoever they were, clearly respected, Jesus. Why would they make up a story about his death that was considered at that time to be the most degrading and humiliating way to die. I mean, these people thought Jesus wasn’t just the Messiah, but God incarnate (John 1:1-3, 14)! Why would you write a story about your own God that demeans Him?[5]

As Dr. Gary Habermas said “Our Lord was killed like a slave? And, he had the best arguments in the universe, and he never opened His mouth? …..He might possibly have been crucified nude. May have happened. Didn’t always happen to crucified victims, but it did sometimes. We have a tendency to not add embarrassing things about those we love, and there are many.”[6] 

Put yourself in the shoes of a first century Jew. If you were going to make up a story of your leader dying and rising, wouldn’t you at least have him be killed in a more dignified way? Stoning was one way Jews killed people back in the first century, as we know from the book of Acts (chapter 7) and Josephus’ (Antiquities of The Jews, book 20, regarding James’ martyrdom by stoning). Maybe it’s just me, but I think being killed by having a large rock thrown at your head is a far more dignified way to die than being nailed to a stake either half-naked or fully naked. The gospel authors, if they were making up the story of Jesus’ death, would most likely have had him die by stoning.

So, once again, the principle of embarrassment gives us good reason to believe the first minimal fact is true.

Reason 6: Multiple Literary Form 

Different Kinds Of Stories about Jesus’ Death. Jesus’ death is recorded in different books of different genres of the first century. The genres are Miracles, Parables, Creeds, Didactic, Greco-Roman Biography, and Apocalyptic.

The Greco-Roman biographies would obviously be the gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
The apocalyptic genre would be the book of revelation in which Jesus shows up in Revelation 5 as a wounded lamb, and Jesus was very likely as the child born in the wilderness in chapter 12.
Creeds — We’ll talk more about creeds in part 5 of this blog post series, but Jesus’ crucifixion is mentioned in the early resurrection creed cited in 1 Corinthians 15, and in the creed cited in Philippians 2.

Parables — Jesus’ death is told in The Parable Of The Wicked Tenants (Luke 20:9-16).

Didactic – Jesus’ crucifixion is mentioned in Peter’s sermon in Acts 2. See Acts 2:36

Reason 7: The King Of The Jews and The Principle Of Dissimilarity 

When the Romans were crucifying Jesus, they nailed a plaque above his head that read “The King Of The Jews” (Mark 15:26, John 19:19). We know that this is historical on the basis the principle of dissimilarity. “The King Of Jews” was never a title used for Jesus by the early church. If this title was just made up by the early church and retroactively inserted into the story of Jesus’ crucifixion, then we would expect the early church to call Jesus “The King Of The Jews” a lot more frequently than we do, but in fact, the early church never called Jesus by this title. Indeed, Jesus isn’t even called “The King Of Jews” in any other place in the synoptic gospels, or the gospel of John except for this one place! Additionally, none of the New Testament epistles call Jesus by this title! If this title was just made up by the early church and retroactively inserted into the story of Jesus’ crucifixion, then we would expect the early church to call Jesus “The King Of The Jews” very frequently. Therefore, by the principle of dissimilarity, we have good reason to believe that this plaque really was nailed above Jesus’ head while he was being crucified, which of course entails that Jesus actually was crucified.

Reason 8: “Why Hast Thou Forsaken Me” — Principle Of Embarrassment 

In Matthew 27, Matthew’s account of Jesus’ death on the cross, Jesus cries out “My God! My God! Why have you forsaken me?” we can conclude that this is an actual utterance of Jesus on the basis of the criterion of embarrassment. Why would Matthew make Jesus ask God why He has forsaken him? It makes it seem as though Jesus doesn’t know why he’s being crucified even though he’s recorded as predicting it earlier (Matthew 20:17-19) and even said why he had to die (Matthew 20:28). Why would Matthew make this saying up? It just raises too many questions. Even today, this saying of Jesus strikes people as something odd for him to say. After all, he predicted his death and even explained why it had to take place, why is he all of a sudden crying out “Why”?

Now, I do think there’s a satisfying explanation for why Jesus said this. It’s the first verse of Psalm 22 verbatim. Most biblical scholars consider this to be a prophecy of the way the Messiah would die. When you compare the contents of Psalm 22 with what happened to Jesus in the gospels, there are striking similarities,  but I won’t go into them now. I’ll leave it up to you to look into that yourself. Jesus was calling attention to this Psalm in order to proclaim to the people that he was fulfilling yet another messianic prophesy.

Nevertheless, even though an explanation exists for this cry of Jesus’, wouldn’t it be easier for Matthew to just omit it altogether rather than go through the trouble of explaining it? Certainly. And that’s why we can conclude that Jesus actually made this statement. Of course, since the context of this statement is Jesus dying by crucifixion, that logically entails that the crucifixion actually occurred as well.

Summary and Conclusion 

We’ve seen that the historical evidence for Jesus having been executed via Roman crucifixion is overwhelming. Jesus’ death by Roman crucifixion is multiply, multiply, multiply attested in 7 independent sources. 4 of those sources are secular, and 3 of them are from The New Testament. It is statistically impossible for 7 different writers to all fabricate the same fictional event and then treat it as history. Moreover, Jesus’ crucifixion is enemy attested by two secular sources (Tacitus and Lucian), sources that were actually ridiculing Christianity in the same breath that they affirm the historicity of Jesus’ crucifixion. Moreover, Jesus’ death is coherent with the well-established facts of Roman history. Moreover, Jesus’ crucifixion meets the criterion of embarrassment in three different ways; (1) John makes women the brave ones to stay by Jesus’ side during his final hours while the disciples abandoned him, and (2) If you’re going to make up a story about someone you cherish dying, you’d make the specific way he died much more dignified. Roman crucifixion was not only an extremely painful way to die, but it was an extremely shameful way as well. Additionally, “My God! My God! Why Have You Forsaken Me” is an awkward saying of Jesus, so it’s unlikely to be made up. Also, Jesus’ death is told in multiple literary forms. Finally, the principle of dissimilarity supports the historicity of the crucifixion because a title is ascribed to Jesus that isn’t ascribed to him anywhere else, in The New Testament or in the writings of the early church fathers.

Of the 5 minimal facts, the death of Jesus on a cross is the one that I don’t think I’ll ever doubt. The evidence for it is so overwhelming and so plenteous, it passes so many of the principles of historical authenticity in so many different ways, that I am baffled how anyone could possibly deny it. In fact, no one does. At least not among scholars. The only people who deny that Jesus existed and died via Roman crucifixion are laymen.

The agnostic historian Bart Ehrman states that “One of the most certain facts of history is that Jesus was crucified on orders of the Roman prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate. [7] The highly critical scholar of the Jesus Seminar, John Dominic Crossan, writes, “That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be.”[8]  Like Ehrman, Crossan is not a Christian. Yet both Ehrman and Crossan agree that Jesus’ death by crucifixion is a historical fact. Gerd Ludemann, an atheist historian, said: “Jesus’ death as a consequence of crucifixion is an indisputable fact.”[9] 

Now, why did I go to such lengths to establish the historicity of Jesus’ crucifixion? One reason is that you have to have a death before you can have a resurrection. Additionally, most of the people who will be reading this blog post series are not scholars or trained historians, but laymen. And many of them deny that Jesus even existed altogether, but much less died on a cross. But among scholars, both Christian and non-Christian, the crucifixion of Jesus is just taken for granted.[10] It isn’t even debated among Christian and Non-Christian scholars. I think that’s why Dr. William Lane Craig skips this one and goes right to Jesus’ burial or the empty tomb. Which, by the way, is the next minimal fact in our case that we’ll examine.

Notes 

[1] From the online article “Did Josephus Refer To Jesus?” by Christopher Price http://bede.org.uk/Josephus.htm

[2] British Museum, Syriac Manuscript, Additional 14,658

[3] McDowell, Josh; McDowell, Sean. Evidence That Demands a Verdict: Life-Changing Truth for a Skeptical World (p. 150). Thomas Nelson. Kindle Edition.

[4] Paul L. Maier, In the Fullness of Time: A Historian Looks at Christmas, Easter, and the Early Church (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1991), 197.

[5] The American Biblical Scholar John P. Meier makes this same argument in “How do we decide what comes from Jesus” in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1-57506-100-7 pages 126–128

[6] Dr. Gary Habermas, transcribed from the lecture “Evidence For The Minimal Facts,” given at The National Conference On Christian Apologetics, October 14th, 2017.

[7] A Brief Introduction to the New Testament by Bart D. Ehrman 2008 ISBN 0-19-536934-3 page 136

[8] See John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991), 145; see also 154, 196, 201.

[9] Dr. Gerd Ludemann, “The Resurrection Of Christ: A Historical Inquiry,” 2004, page 50.

[10] See RE Brown, The Death Of The Messiah, 1994, page 1373

 


Original Blog Source: http://bit.ly/2Hq7aw3

Por Max Andrews

Demasiado a menudo encuentro cristianos descartando algo porque es “filosofía” y no es de la Biblia, de un credo,  de una confesión, etcétera. En mi experiencia, muchas personas tienden a acusar al Molinismo como filosofía. Para seguir esta breve tangente, el conocimiento medio y el Molinismo no es una rejilla filosófica puesta encima de la Escritura; más bien, es una derivación de un compromiso a ciertos principios ya obtenidos de la Escritura. (Vea El Directorio Molinista para más sobre ese tema). Bien, resulta que ayer vi un tweet haciendo esta afirmación sobre el Molinismo siendo filosofía. (Este tweet en particular simplemente categoriza el Molinismo como filosofía, pero sigue siendo descartado en la larga cadena de tweets anteriores y posteriores).

Si estamos persiguiendo la verdad entonces hay muchos medios para descubrir cuál es la verdad [sobre Dios, la realidad, etc.]. Es increíblemente ingenuo descartar algo porque no está en una categoría preferida. Si estamos persiguiendo la verdad entonces sería un error de categoría descartar el Molinismo simplemente porque es filosofía (de acuerdo a la persona que hace la afirmación). Siéntete libre en no estar de acuerdo con el Molinismo, pero hazlo en una base consistente y refútalo a través del testimonio de las Escrituras, reflexiones/consideraciones teológicas, consistencia lógica y metafísica, etc.

Este método de razonamiento es difícilmente eficiente y contrario a un enfoque clásico a la educación. Pienso que muchos han olvidado o no saben por qué la teología fue una vez considerada la “Reina de las Ciencias”. Cuando los estudiantes estudiaban en la escuela o en la universidad, la teología era la última cosa que ellos aprendían. Los estudiantes estudiaban primero filosofía, arte, biología, química, física, literatura, matemáticas, etcétera y luego aprendían teología. ¿Por qué? Porque todas estas disciplinas son esenciales para aprender sobre Dios y la exégesis de la Escritura.

Por ejemplo, es necesario tener un entendimiento científico de la naturaleza y la agencia antes de interpretar las Escrituras. A fin de saber que un milagro ha pasado, uno debe saber que el agua líquida es menos densa que el cuerpo humano; que el agua normalmente no experimenta reacciones químicas para convertirse en vino fermentado, o que los cuerpos muertos normalmente no experimentan una resucitación biológica natural o una resurrección. De hecho, encuentro la búsqueda de la ciencia un excelente medio para descubrir verdades teológicas—la ciencia es la búsqueda de lo sagrado.

Así que, ¿por qué la búsqueda de la ciencia es la búsqueda de lo sagrado? Estoy seguro que sonó un poco blasfemo para algunos lectores al principio. Si Dios es el creador del orden natural entonces podemos tener una teología natural significativa. Si la ciencia es el descubrimiento de las verdades empíricas que llevan a la explicación de ciertos fenómenos entonces aprender las verdades científicas es aprender las verdades sobre Dios. Toda verdad [objetiva] es verdad de Dios. A nosotros también comúnmente nos gusta bifurcar la ciencia con Dios. ¿Por qué? Si buscamos el conocimiento sobre el orden creado entonces estamos buscando el conocimiento sobre Dios.

Dudo que tales élites teológicas y categóricas descartaran un argumento que presento para la resurrección porque tiene componentes científicos en él (por ejemplo, el aspecto bioquímico o físico de la muerte). Difícilmente escuchas, “No, no… eso es ciencia y no es bíblico ni teológico”. Es decir, a menos que empieces a hablar sobre el relato de la creación—todos sabemos que no podemos tener a la ciencia involucrada en nuestra exégesis ¿verdad?… (Sarcasmo). Mi punto es, esa filosofía es usualmente descartada simplemente porque es filosofía—necesitamos parar de hacer eso.

La filosofía moldea y guía cómo pensamos y razonamos a través de cada disciplina. Hay una filosofía de la matemática, filosofía de la biología, filosofía de la física, filosofía del arte, etcétera por una razón. Así que, incluso si el Molinismo es solo “filosofía” entonces sería ilícito para estas élites categóricas discriminar contra cualquier cosa filosófica simplemente por ser filosófica.

 


Este artículo fue publicado inicialmente por Max Andrews en el sitio Sententias.org y en este momento no está vigente.

Traducido por Allan Sánchez

Editado por Raúl Jaramillo

by Aaron  Brake

“If you hate evil, hate sin.”

—Clay Jones—

Introduction

The so-called problem of evil is one of the most common objections raised against the Christian faith. Perhaps no one has more succinctly stated the apparent contradiction between an all-loving, all-powerful God and the existence of evil as the eighteenth-century Scottish skeptic David Hume:

Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is impotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Whence then is evil?[1]

More modern skeptics have posed the logical (or deductive) problem of evil this way:

  1. If God is all-good (omnibenevolent), He would prevent evil.
  2. If God is all-powerful (omnipotent), He could prevent evil.
  3. If God is all-knowing (omniscient), He knows how to prevent evil.
  4. But evil exists.
  5. Therefore, either God is not all-good, all-powerful, or all-knowing (or maybe He doesn’t exist!)

The existence of suffering and evil in the world has been an obstacle to faith for many, and for others, a source of constant doubt. When addressing the problem of evil from within the Christian worldview, I am convinced the following points must not only be taken into consideration but earnestly thought through and reflected upon until they become both intellectually and emotionally satisfying. When they are, I believe the problem of evil (POE) largely goes away.[2]

So why is the problem of evil a problem? Here are ten reasons:

#1 The POE is a problem because we fail to differentiate between the problems of evil and their respective solutions.

John Feinberg begins his book The Many Faces of Evil by laying out two very helpful and essential ground rules that must be understood by anyone attempting to discuss God and the problem of evil. These two ground rules are as follows: (1) there is no such thing as the problem of evil and (2) the problem of evil in its logical form is about the internal consistency of any given theological position.[3]

First, we need to realize that there are several problems of evil, not just one. The phrase “problem of evil” can be used to refer to a host of different dilemmas arising over the issue of God and evil. For example, someone who raises the problem of evil may be referring to the religious/emotional problem of evil, the logical problem of evil, the evidential problem of evil, moral evil, or natural evil, just to name a few. That there is not just one problem of evil necessitates that any discussion about God and evil must first begin by clarifying what problem is under discussion.[4] Each problem is separate and therefore may require its own solution. In addition, the skeptic cannot reject a defense for a particular problem of evil by arguing that it does not solve every problem of evil. No one defense addresses every problem of evil, nor was it intended to do so.

For example, an atheist may reject the free will defense because they don’t believe it adequately handles the problem of natural evil. But the free will defense is primarily used when addressing the problem of moral evil, not natural evil. Solving the problem of natural evil may require additional argumentation or an entirely different solution altogether. Either way, the atheist who reasons this way is simply mistaken. As Feinberg notes, “It is wrongheaded at a very fundamental level to think that because a given defense or theodicy doesn’t solve every problem of evil, it doesn’t solve any problem of evil.”[5]

Second, the problem of evil in its logical form is about the internal consistency of any given theological position. In other words, the critic is claiming there is a contradiction in the theist’s system and is therefore obligated to show a specific problem within the system they are attacking. Skeptics must be careful not to artificially generate an internal inconsistency within the theist’s system by attributing views of God, evil, freedom, love, omnipotence, justice, etc., to the theist which the theist himself doesn’t hold.

For example, an atheist cannot object to the free will defense on the grounds that God could create human beings with free will, and yet at the same time eliminate all moral evil, based on the atheist’s belief in view of free will known as compatibilism. If the theist incorporating the free will defense holds to libertarian free will, the atheist would be artificially (falsely) generating an internal inconsistency by importing his own definition of free will into the theist’s system. The atheist again is simply mistaken. If an internal inconsistency exists, it must be shown to exist within the theist’s system, not one imposed on him by the atheist. A critic may not like a particular defense or theodicy and may object to the system on external grounds, but this has nothing to do with whether the theist’s system suffers from an internal contradiction.

Finally, many of these supposed contradictions simply assume that God does not have a morally sufficient reason for allowing the evil He does. But this would be something the critic needs to justify. As long as the theist offers a possible explanation as to why God allows evil, the charge of contradiction becomes groundless. Of course, theists should certainly do their best to offer not just possible, but plausible solutions. In fact, there are already many theological systems that are able to solve their own logical problem of evil. These systems include theonomy, Leibnizian Rationalism, as well as those incorporating a free will defense.[6]

#2 The POE is a problem because we fail to examine it from a worldview perspective.

The problem of evil is not just a problem for Christians. It is a problem for everyone. I do not mean by this that every worldview needs to reconcile the existence of an all-loving, all-powerful God and evil. Rather, I mean that everyone, regardless of their worldview, must give an account for the existence of pain and suffering. This is not an attempt to dodge the objection. It is simply a point of the fact that each person should be able to give some explanation of pain and suffering from within their respective worldview.

Therefore, looking at the problem of evil from a worldview perspective we can frame the discussion by means of two questions:

  1. Which worldview best accounts for the origin and existence of evil?
  2. Which worldview offers the best solution to evil?

It is when we begin to compare and contrast Christianity with other belief systems in light of these questions that the superiority of the Christian worldview becomes evident.

For example, what can atheistic materialism say in response to the existence of pain and suffering? More specifically, can atheistic materialism offer a better account for the origin and existence of evil, as well as a solution, when compared with Christian theism? These questions seem to be relevant given that atheists and skeptics are those most often complaining about the POE.

Regarding the origin of evil, it seems all the atheist can say is “Evil just is.” Nature is red in tooth and claw. Evil is nothing but matter in motion, the same as goodness. Furthermore, how do objective moral values arise from matter, chance, and time? While Christians need to reconcile God and evil, the atheist must not only deal with their own problem of evil but also the problem of goodness, i.e., reconciling the existence of objective moral values with a materialistic universe. Richard Dawkins has stated,

In a universe of blind physical forces and genetic replication, some people are going to get hurt, other people are going to get lucky, and you won’t find any rhyme or reason in it, nor any justice. The universe we observe has precisely the properties we should expect if there is, at bottom, no design, no purpose, no evil and no good, nothing but blind pitiless indifference.[7]

If atheistic materialism is true, it seems all the atheist can say is that life is filled with gratuitous and unredeemable suffering…and then you die. There is no ultimate justice, let alone ultimate meaning, purpose, or value in life. But this can hardly be considered a solution of any sort. In terms of worldview thinking it is difficult to see how atheistic materialism can offer any consolation in the face of pain and suffering.

As another example, how do Eastern religions deal with pain and suffering? For Hindus evil is Maya, an illusion. Evil is not real. People suffer because of injustices performed in past lives (karmic debt). Therefore, suffering should not be alleviated since this would interfere with the karmic cycle and bring bad karma on the one attempting to aid the sufferer. This position prevents compassion and morally obligatory action in the face of horrendous evil. Furthermore, Hinduism and Buddhism, both advocates of karma and reincarnation, cannot make sense of these two doctrines within their respective religions and end up with logically incoherent systems:

For there to be reincarnated subjects of karma, there must be individual, personal selves that endure and continue as themselves from lifetime to lifetime. But Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta Hinduism do not affirm the existence of individual, personal selves. Therefore, these religions cannot logically support the existence of selves that endure from lifetime to lifetime or which are subjects of karma. Therefore, these Eastern religions cannot logically support reincarnation. If this argument succeeds, it not only demonstrates that they cannot solve the problem of evil, it further shows that both religions propose essential truth claims that contradict each other: (1) there is no self, and (2) reincarnation and karma. Thus, both religions fail the test of internal logical consistency and are necessarily false.[8]

What about Christianity? Christianity does not conclude that “evil just is” nor that evil is an illusion. As Augustine argued, evil can be explained in part as the deprivation (or privation) of good.[9] Evil is what ought not to be. Christian theism can account for both the origin and existence of evil since it teaches there is a part of reality which is non-physical. Furthermore, since evil is not some “thing” but rather the privation of good, God is not the direct creator of evil. Rather, evil came as a result of free beings using their free will badly. Christian philosophers and theologians throughout the centuries have offered numerous defenses in light of the problem of evil, arguing that God has morally sufficient reasons for allowing evil. Some of these defenses include the free will defense and the soul-building theodicy.

In short, an all-loving, all-powerful God can allow evil so long as He has a morally sufficient reason for doing so. While Christians may not be able to answer why God allows each and every particular instance of pain and suffering, there is no logical contradiction between the existence of evil and an all-loving, all-powerful God. Furthermore, the Christian message of God incarnates entering His creation and suffering in our place so we may have the hope of eternity makes these slight and momentary afflictions of no comparison to the eternal weight of glory that awaits us (2 Cor. 4:17). Those who reject God because of evil are rejecting the only One who can redeem evil and suffering for good. Randy Alcorn summarizes the Christian position this way:

The Bible never sugarcoats evil…The Christian worldview concerning this central problem is utterly unique. When compared to other belief systems, it is singularly profound, satisfying, and comforting….I’m convinced that Christianity’s explanation of why evil and suffering exist beats that of any worldview. Its explanation of why we can expect God to forever deliver His redeemed people from evil and suffering is better still. The answers revealed in Scripture not only account for how the world is, they offer the greatest hope for where the world is headed.[10]

#3 The POE is a problem because we forget that evil is evidence for the existence of God.

When you admit the existence of evil, i.e., things that are really wrong, you are acknowledging the existence of objective moral values. This seems to be problematic for both the atheist and the relativist considering the atheist cannot adequately ground objective morality, and the relativist assumes morality is relative.

The atheist or relativist may call upon the theist to give an account for the internal consistency of the theist’s worldview given the existence of both God and evil, but as soon as the atheist or relativist acknowledges that evil is real they have subsequently surrendered their worldview since they are assuming an objective standard of moral goodness. By “objective” I mean independent of what people think or perceive.[11] Complaining about evil assumes that evil is a real thing that it is objectively wrong; otherwise, we could simply dismiss the atheist or relativist by saying “that’s just evil for you.”

So where does this objective standard of morality come from? The only suitable grounding for objective morality is an objective moral law-giver: God. Ironically then, the existence of evil can be turned into an argument for the existence of God:

  1. If God does not exist, objective moral values do not exist.
  2. Evil exists.
  3. Therefore, objective moral values exist.
  4. Therefore, God exists.[12]

This argument is logically valid. The skeptic concedes premise two by raising the problem of evil in the first place, e.g., “Why does God let bad things happen?” Therefore, the argument hinges on premise one. However, in reflecting on premise one it seems clear that if there is no God, then there is no objective grounding for moral principles which apply to all people, in all places, at all times. Morality would be relegated to cultural conventions or individual ethical subjectivism. William Lane Craig sums it up this way:

Although at a superficial level suffering calls into question God’s existence, at a deeper level suffering actually proves God’s existence. For apart from God, suffering is not really bad. If the atheist believes that suffering is bad or ought not to be, then he’s making moral judgments that are possible only if God exists.[13]

In short, when the atheist or relativist raises qualms about God allowing evil he implicitly admits to an objective standard of morality which his own worldview cannot account for, but which the Christian worldview can. In other words, in order to complain about evil and raise the objection in the first place, atheists, skeptics, and relativists must borrow from Christian moral capital and the Christian worldview.

#4 The POE is a problem because we fail to take into account the full scope of evidence.

If evil, pain, and suffering were all there is, belief in the existence of an all-loving, all-powerful God might become rather absurd. Unfortunately, this is how the skeptic often paints the picture, emphasizing what seem to be gratuitous examples of suffering while at the same time either denying or ignoring the counterevidence against his position and in favor of God. Only examples of pain and suffering are offered as evidence against God, while any arguments or evidence for God are unfortunately left out.

Arguments which may be offered in favor of the existence of God include the cosmological, teleological, moral, transcendental, ontological, and, as mentioned above, even the argument from evil for the existence of God. Evidence which needs to be considered includes evidence for the beginning of the universe, the fine-tuning of the cosmos, the existence of objective moral values (again, including evil), the resurrection of Jesus Christ, the reliability of Scripture, so forth and so on. Regarding these considerations, William Lane Craig states,

The interesting question is whether God’s existence is probable relative to the full scope of evidence. I’m convinced that whatever improbability suffering may cast upon God’s existence, it’s outweighed by the arguments for the existence of God.[14]

In other words, if we have independent lines of evidence which point to the existence of an all-powerful, all-loving God, then we may be justified in believing in God even in the face of unexplained evil. We need to look at all the evidence, not evil in isolation. In his book Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith, Douglas Groothuis places his chapter on the problem of evil near the end of the book for this very reason:

This chapter is placed near the end of the book because we should not take up the problem in a philosophical vacuum. We have contended that the case for Christian faith is multifaceted and cumulative. Christianity is rationally supported by a number of arguments. If so, then the biblical worldview cannot prima facie be refuted by one particular problem…We should consider all the arguments given thus far for the Christian worldview and against its competitors when considering the problem of evil…Therefore, the God-denier cannot declare victory over theism by merely stating the problem of evil.[15]

#5 The POE is a problem because we fail to understand our relationship to Adam.

If we want to know why there is so much pain and suffering in the world, we need to go back to the beginning and look at the first choice.[16] Most of the pain and suffering in the world can be attributed to free agents using their free will badly. This is exactly what Adam and Eve did and what we as their offspring continue to do. In short, our first parents willingly rebelled against God bringing corruption into the world and plunging all of mankind into a lifelong education of the knowledge of good and evil.

But how is it that wholly good beings, placed in a wholly good environment, in perfect relationship with God and one another, possessing wills inclined toward God, could turn against God? William Dembski offers this as a possible solution:

Precisely because a created will belongs to a creature, that creature, if sufficiently reflective, can reflect on its creaturehood and realize that it is not God. Creaturehood implies constraints to which the Creator is not subject… The question then naturally arises, Has God the Creator denied to the creature some freedom that might benefit it? Adam and Eve thought the answer to this was yes…As soon as the creature answers yes to this question, its will turns against God. Once that happens, the will becomes evil. Whereas previously evil was merely a possibility, now it has become a reality. In short, the problem of evil starts when creatures think God is evil for “cramping their style.” The impulse of our modern secular culture to cast off restraint wherever possible finds its root here…No longer able to trust God, humanity turned inward and sought fulfillment in its creaturehood rather than in the source of its being, the Creator.[17]

What were the consequences of this first sin? Not only was the marriage relationship damaged but the ground was cursed.[18] This raises the issue of natural evil. Much of the evil we see in the world including cancer, disease, sickness, pestilence, and death are explained as the result of sin entering the world. Natural evil then is the result of Adam and Eve exercising their free choice badly. Furthermore, sin also affected every aspect of their persons (mind, will, emotion, body), a concept known as total depravity. Mankind is now in bondage to sin and without hope apart from the grace of God.

But why do we suffer for the sin of Adam and Eve committed so long ago? This question fails to take into account that Adam and Eve are not some disconnected couple who lived long ago and have nothing to do with us. They were our first parents, they sinned, and they reproduced! The apostle Paul says in Romans 5:12, “Therefore, just as through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned.”

One of the reasons we struggle with the doctrine of original sin is due to our strong sense of Western individuality. In reality, we are less individual than we think. Millard Erickson states,

…the entirety of our human nature, both physical and spiritual, material and immaterial, has been received from our parents and more distant ancestors by way of descent from the first pair of humans. On that basis, we were actually present within Adam, so that we all sinned in his act. There is no injustice, then, to our condemnation and death as a result of original sin.[19]

If this is true, everything that we are we received from Adam and Eve, including our soul and consciousness.[20] Once Adam and Eve became corrupt, all they could produce was corruption, i.e., they could not produce anything better than themselves. To say it again, they were our first parents, they sinned, and they reproduced. Each one of us is a little Adam or Eve. When we understand our relationship to Adam we learn several lessons regarding the problem of evil:

First, evil is the result of free beings using their free will badly.

Second, Adam and Eve plunged all of mankind into a lifelong education of the knowledge of good and evil. God is using evil and suffering to teach free creatures the horror of sin and the horror of rebellion against God. The lesson is this: if you hate evil, hate sin! William Dembski states,

We are the arsonists. We started the fire. God wants to rescue us…But to be rescued from a life of arson requires that we know how destructive arson is… If God always instantly put out the fires we start, we would never appreciate the damage fires can do. We started a fire in consenting to evil. God permits this fire to rage… so that we can rightly understand the human condition and thus come to our senses.[21]

Third, Adam’s seed always deserves to die unless it repents (Rom. 6:23). Jesus Himself takes it for granted that the wages of sin is death and that it is only God’s mercy that keeps us alive. To help emphasize this third point, let’s take a moment to look at Jesus’ own comments regarding the problem of evil.

Excursus: Jesus on the Problem of Evil

In Luke 13:1-5 we have Jesus’ clearest teaching on the problem of evil:[22]

Now there were some present at that time who told Jesus about the Galileans whose blood Pilate had mixed with their sacrifices. Jesus answered, “Do you think that these Galileans were worse sinners than all the other Galileans because they suffered this way? I tell you, no! But unless you repent, you too will all perish. Or those eighteen who died when the tower in Siloam fell on them—do you think they were more guilty than all the others living in Jerusalem? I tell you, no! But unless you repent, you too will all perish.

Not only is this Jesus’ clearest teaching on the problem of evil but we see Him addressing both moral and natural evil in His response. Notice that Jesus is first questioned regarding an example of what we would call moral evil: the murder of some Galileans by Pilate. In providing an answer, Jesus Himself introduces an example of natural evil: the falling of the tower of Siloam which killed eighteen.

How did Jesus answer the problem of evil presented to Him? Was Jesus taken back, struck by the profundity of such a pregnant question? His answer is short and to the point: “They weren’t worse sinners, they were just sinners. And unless you repent, you’ll die too.”

D.A. Carson in his book How Long, O Lord? Provides several important insights into this passage. It would behoove us as Christians to reflect deeply on these points.

First, Jesus takes it for granted that the wages of sin is death (Rom. 6:23):

Jesus does not assume that those who suffered under Pilate, or those who were killed in the collapse of the tower, did not deserve their fate. Indeed, the fact that he can tell those contemporaries that unless they repent, they too will perish shows that Jesus assumes that all death is in one way or another the result of sin, and therefore deserved.[23]

Second, because death is what we all deserve, it is only God’s mercy that keeps us alive:

Jesus does insist that death by such means is no evidence whatsoever that those who suffer in this way are any more wicked than those who escape such a fate. The assumption seems to be that all deserve to die. If some die under a barbarous governor, and others in a tragic accident, it is not more than they deserve. But that does not mean that others deserve any less. Rather, the implication is that it is only God’s mercy that has kept them alive. There is certainly no moral superiority on their part.[24]

Third, wars and natural disasters are always calls to repentance, and the fact that we question God’s goodness in times of calamity is a reflection of our own depravity and rebellion:

Jesus treats wars and natural disasters not as agenda items in a discussion of the mysterious ways of God, but as incentives to repentance. It is as if he is saying that God uses the disaster as a megaphone to call attention to our guilt and destination, to the imminence of his righteous judgment if he sees no repentance. This is an argument developed at great length in Amos 4. Disaster is a call to repentance. Jesus might have added (as he does elsewhere) that peace and tranquility, which we do not deserve, show us God’s goodness and forbearance.

It is a mark of our lostness that we invert these two. We think we deserve the times of blessing and prosperity, and that the times of war and disaster are not only unfair but come perilously close to calling into question God’s goodness or his power—even, perhaps, his very existence. Jesus simply did not see it that way.[25]

Dr. Clay Jones in his class on Why God Allows Evil entertainingly replays the dialogue from Luke 13 like this:[26]

Questioner: Jesus, we have the problem of evil here, the great problem of the ages. People are being killed Jesus. What have you got to say?

Jesus: They weren’t worse sinners, they were just sinners, and unless you repent you’ll die too. Next?

Questioner: Whoa! Jesus, hold on for a minute here! This is the PROBLEM OF EVIL! The question of the ages! Philosophers have debated this forever! People are dying here Jesus! What have you got to say???

Jesus: They weren’t worse sinners, they were just sinners, and unless you repent you’ll die too. Next?

Questioner: No, Jesus, don’t you get it?!? Let me put it to you this way. You see, if God were all-loving, He would want to prevent evil. If God were all-powerful, He could prevent evil…

Jesus: They weren’t worse sinners, they were just sinners, and unless you repent you’ll die too. Next?

That’s it ladies and gentleman, Jesus’ answer to the problem of evil. All fallen, unregenerate sinners born in Adam are corrupted to the core and deserve death. Whether we die by murder, accident, or disease isn’t anything more than we deserve. It is only by God’s grace that anyone is saved and it is only by God’s mercy that anyone is kept alive.

What implications does this have for Christian apologetics? At least three:

First, it means that Christian apologists need to take the consequences of sin and reality of human depravity seriously when addressing the problem of evil. Many Christians simply pay lip service to what the Bible has to say about these topics. It’s no wonder then we are often at a loss for words when someone asks, “Why do bad things happen to good people?” A completely biblical, though partial, rejoinder is this: no one is good but God alone! Bad things don’t happen to good people because no one is good. Jesus raised no qualms about our naturally born status as sinners before God, the universal corruption, and guilt of humankind, or our need for repentance. He introduced these very issues Himself in addressing the problem of evil. He took it for granted that the wages of sin is death. Christian apologists should do likewise.

Second, when addressing the problem of evil, Christian apologists need to present a theodicy which minimally includes the biblical teaching of original sin and human depravity. Why God allows evil won’t make sense unless we have the problem of sin clearly before us. J.I. Packer stated,

The subject of sin is vital knowledge… If you have not learned about sin, you cannot understand yourself, or your fellow-men, or the world you live in, or the Christian faith. And you will not be able to make head or tail of the Bible. For the Bible is an exposition of God’s answer to the problem of human sin and unless you have that problem clearly before you, you will keep missing the point of what it says.[27]

The same is true for the problem of evil. The subject of sin is essential because in raising the problem of evil, the skeptic must put forth an anthropodicy (justification of man) by arguing that man is “basically good” and God is unjust for allowing the suffering and evil He does. In response, the theist must show these assumptions to be false, and in their place put forth a theodicy (justification of God) which includes evidencing the depths of human depravity and arguing that God has morally sufficient reasons for allowing evil. Until we clearly articulate and defend the gravity of sin, as well as the universal corruption and guilt of humankind, many of our answers to the problem of evil will largely remain unpersuasive.[28]

Third, the present moral and natural evils we experience are appropriate segues into our need to practice and preach repentance in light of the final eschatological judgment. Those who experience such evils are not any more deserving. Rather, these disasters serve as warnings to all of us that final disaster awaits everyone who remains hardhearted and unrepentant:

So when disaster strikes, let us not wring our hands over the mysterious ways of God but encourage everyone to reflect on their sinful and doomed state in hopes that some will escape the Final Disaster that awaits the ultimately unrepentant.[29]

End of Excursus

Finally, no matter how many examples are presented to us of human suffering and evil, the major recourse is to point to human sinfulness:

Suffering and evil are the result of sin… To those who complain about evil and suffering, our reply should be: “Hate sin!” Our problem in understanding why humans suffer is that we diminish the significance and extent of human sinfulness.[30]

#6 The POE is a problem because we fail to grasp the depth of human depravity.

Human beings apart from the grace of God are capable of horrendous evils. A discussion of human depravity in relation to the problem of evil is absolutely necessary because the most frequently asked question concerning the POE is this: “Why do bad things happen to good people?” This is sometimes referred to as the emotional problem of evil.

A full treatment of human depravity simply isn’t possible here. Dr. Clay Jones of Biola University is well-read in this area and has done excellent work, especially relating human depravity to the problem of evil. His work is highly recommended and so I refer you to these articles and encourage you not to proceed on this topic without reading them first:

            Human Evil and Suffering

            We Don’t Hate Sin So We Don’t Understand What Happened to the Canaanites

To put it succinctly, the question “Why do bad things happen to good people?” is based on the false assumption that people are “good.” Given the reality of human depravity, the problem with this question should become immediately apparent. Man is not innately good:

The terrible human evils in the world are the testimony to man’s depravity in his state of spiritual alienation from God. The Christian isn’t surprised at the moral evil in the world; on the contrary, he expects it. The Scriptures indicate that God has given mankind up to the sin it has freely chosen; He doesn’t interfere to stop it but lets human depravity run its course (Rom. 1:24, 26, 28). This only serves to heighten mankind’s moral responsibility before God, as well as our wickedness and our need for forgiveness and moral cleansing.[31]

So the question is not “Why do bad things happen to good people?” but rather “Why do bad things happen to bad people?” But nobody ever asks that question. Perhaps the question we should be asking is this: “Why do good things happen to bad people?” Why has God out of His mercy chosen to dispense any goodness at all on rebellious sinners?

Skeptics, however, are often inconsistent when it comes to the nature of man and the problem of evil. They want to hold to the basic “goodness” of man and at the same time complain about the evil, pain, and suffering which man perpetuates, all the while blaming God for allowing it:

On the one hand, skeptics argue that bad things shouldn’t happen to good people and that the human race consists mainly of good people. On the other hand, their very objections concern the bad things people do to one another: murder, war, rape, child abuse, brutality, kidnapping, bullying, ridiculing, shaming, corporate greed, unwillingness to share wealth or to care for the environment…Since the same human race that commits these evils also suffers from them—since we are not only victims but perpetrators, of sin—what would God’s critics have Him do?[32]

How does a knowledge and understanding of the depths of human evil help us, especially in relation to the problem of evil? In addition to largely answering the emotional problem of evil as discussed above, the following points prove insightful:[33]

First, it demonstrates God’s patience and justifies God’s judgment. If you think that people are basically good, you will often be tempted to ask, “Why is God angry all the time?” when reading passages in Scripture concerning God’s judgment (e.g., the flood, destruction of the Canaanites, etc.). When you begin to fully grasp the depth of human depravity, sinfulness, and corruption, you instead will say, “Wow, God is really patient. Why isn’t He judging people sooner?” C.S. Lewis stated, “When we merely say that we are bad, the ‘wrath’ of God seems a barbarous doctrine; as soon as we perceive our badness, it appears inevitable, a mere corollary from God’s goodness.”[34]

Second, it magnifies the significance of Christ’s sacrifice. Jesus didn’t suffer a brutal, agonizing, torturous death on the cross because you’re basically a good person.

Third, it impassions are a witness. If you think that people are basically good, it will be hard for you to tell them they are corrupt sinners in need of salvation.

Fourth, it increases our desire for the Jesus’ return. When we watch television and see examples of some of the horrendous evil and suffering that takes place around the world, we often cry out, “Come quickly, Lord Jesus.”

Fifth, it reveals the greatness of our salvation. After all, if you think that you are basically a good person, your salvation doesn’t seem so grand:

We must contemplate men in sin, until we are horrified, until we alarmed, until we are desperate about them, until we pray for them, until having realized the marvel of our own deliverance from that terrible state, we are lost in a sense of wonder, love, and praise.[35] 

Finally, it reveals we have gotten the problem of evil exactly backward:

There is a problem of evil alright. But it isn’t God’s problem—He is only good and doesn’t do any evil. It’s humankind’s problem because we are the ones who do evil. As C. S. Lewis put it, “The Christian answer—that we have used our free will to become very bad—is so well known that it hardly needs to be stated. But to bring this doctrine into real life in the minds of modern men, and even modern Christians is very hard.” Indeed. And a Christian won’t understand why God allows evil unless he or she thinks these things through.[36]

#7 The POE is a problem because we assume God does not have morally sufficient reasons for allowing evil. 

As stated in the introduction, the problem of evil was been formulated this way:

  1. If God is all-good (omnibenevolent), He would prevent evil.
  2. If God is all-powerful (omnipotent), He could prevent evil.
  3. If God is all-knowing (omniscient), He knows how to prevent evil.
  4. But evil exists.
  5. Therefore, either God is not all-good, all-powerful, or all-knowing (or maybe He doesn’t exist!)

Though the argument is logically valid, two of the premises are highly debatable and should be challenged. Premise one is problematic because it assumes there is never a sufficient reason for God to allow evil. It simply does not follow that if God is all-good, He would necessarily prevent all evil, for God may have other goods, purposes, and goals in mind which He desires to actualize and accomplish, even though by doing so evil becomes a possibility, and eventual actuality. An all-good God can do this so long as He has morally sufficient reasons for allowing evil. Ronald Nash states,

There seem to be many evils in the world that can be eliminated only by producing situations containing more evil or costing us some greater good. Suppose that many evils result from the human free will or from the fact that our universe operates under natural laws or from the fact that humans exist in a setting that fosters soul-making. And suppose further that a world containing free will and natural law that fosters soul-making contains more good than a world that does not. If it makes no sense for God to eliminate an evil that would bring about a state of affairs in which there would be less good or more evil, our newest candidate for the missing proposition—that a good being always eliminates evil as far as it can—may safely be dismissed as neither true nor an essential Christian belief.[37]

This is true despite the fact that finite human beings may not know the specific reasons for specific instances of evil.

Premise two is likewise problematic, for it assumes that “all-powerful” means the ability to do anything, including actualizing logically contradictory states of affairs. But this commits a straw-man fallacy by misrepresenting how omnipotence is understood within Christian theism. Omnipotence, or “all-powerful,” does not mean God can do anything, but rather that God can do anything so long as it is logically possible and consistent with His nature, e.g., God cannot sin or make a squared circle. In answering the problem of evil, those Christian theists incorporating the free will defense have noted that God cannot give human beings libertarian free will and yet prevent them from doing evil. Those appealing to a soul-building theodicy argue that God cannot create a world in which individuals exercise certain virtues, develop significant character traits, and learn valuable moral lessons in the face of evil if the world which God creates contains no evil. Hence, premise two is false as well. 

As just mentioned, two traditional defenses offered by Christian theists in the face of the problem of evil have been the free will defense and the soul-making (or soul-building) defense. The free will defense trades on a libertarian view of freedom and therefore can only be used consistently by those holding to libertarian free will (typically Arminians or Molinists in theological circles). This strategy argues that free will is valuable, that God desired to create human beings with genuine free will (libertarian), and that it is better to create free creatures possessing the ability to love and enter into real relationship with God than to create “robots” or “puppets.” However, free will makes evil a possibility since human beings can freely choose to use their free will badly. Alvin Plantinga states,

A world containing creatures who are significantly free (and freely perform more good than evil actions) is more valuable, all else being equal than a world containing no free creatures at all. Now God can create free creatures, but He can’t cause or determine them to do only what is right. For if He does so, then they aren’t significantly free after all; they do not do what is right freely. To create creatures capable of moral good, therefore, He must create creatures capable of moral evil, and He can’t give these creatures the freedom to perform evil and at the same time prevent them from doing so. As it turned out, sadly enough, some of the free creatures God created went wrong in the exercise of their freedom; this is the source of moral evil. That fact that free creatures sometimes go wrong, however, counts neither against God’s omnipotence nor against His goodness; for He could have forestalled the occurrence of moral evil only by removing the possibility of moral good.[38]

Unlike the free will defense where evil becomes a possibility given the reality of free creatures, the soul-making defense argues that evil is logically necessary for some good to be accomplished, but that this good outweighs the evil:

…some moral goods are impossible apart from responding to particular evils. Therefore, the Fall (while based on human rebellion against a holy God) opens up possibilities for virtue not possible otherwise. That is, evil serves an instrumental, good purpose in the providence of God… All evils serve some justifiable purpose in God’s economy…God uses certain evils to actualize a good greater than would be possible otherwise… Evils should provide possibilities for virtuous responses to vicious behavior.[39] 

Both the free will and soul-making defense argue that God has morally sufficient reasons for allowing evil. They both appeal to the existence of a “greater good.” As long as these scenarios are at least possible, the logical (or deductive) problem of evil is defeated. An argument showing the consistency of God and evil can be formed this way:

  1. An omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God created the world.
  2. God creates a world containing evil and has a good reason for doing so.
  3. Therefore, the world contains evil.[40]

While Christians may not be able to answer why God allows each and every particular instance of evil, it does not follow from this that God does not have morally sufficient reasons for allowing evil or that specific instances of evil, as well as evil in general, serve no greater good. In other words, “the morally sufficient reasons for these evils may be inscrutable, but they are not gratuitous.”[41] An appearance of gratuitousness may simply be due to our own ignorance:

…given the limitations of human knowledge, it is hard to see how any human being could actually know that a specific instance of evil really is gratuitous. In fact, it looks as though a person would have to be omniscient before he would be warranted in claiming that he knows that some particular evil is totally senseless and purposeless.

It seems, then, that the most any human can claim to know is that the world contains evil that appears gratuitous.[42]

Knowing the reason God allows a particular evil is a question of epistemology, while the nature of that particular evil (whether or not it is actually gratuitous) is a matter of ontology. From the fact that we don’t know (epistemology) the reason for that evil, we cannot justifiably conclude regarding what is (ontology) the true nature of that evil. This applies to the theist and atheist alike. We may greatly desire to know God’s reasons, and the fact that we don’t know may bother us, but what of significance follows from this? According to Plantinga,

Very little of interest. Why suppose that if God does have a good reason for permitting evil, the theist would be the first to know? Perhaps God has a good reason, but that reason is too complicated for us to understand. Or perhaps He has not revealed it for some other reason. The fact that the theist doesn’t know why God permits evil is, perhaps, an interesting fact about the theist, but by itself, it shows little or nothing relevant to the rationality of belief in God. Much more is needed for the atheological argument even to get off the ground… the theist’s not knowing why God permits evil does not by itself show that he is irrational in thinking that God does indeed have a reason. To make out his case, therefore, the atheologian cannot rest content with asking embarrassing questions to which the theist does not know the answer.[43]

When it comes to apparently gratuitous evil then, are the theist and atheist at a stalemate? Not necessarily. Perhaps the issue can and should be resolved on other grounds:

…the most reasonable position to hold appears to be this: we cannot explain cases of apparently gratuitous suffering until we know whether or not they are indeed gratuitous. And this we can never claim unless we are sure as to the ontological status of God. Since we cannot prove or disprove His non-existence [via the argument from gratuitous evil], we must first prove or disprove His existence. Until that is accomplished, we cannot know whether there are such cases.[44]

In light of this, Ronald Nash goes on to state,

…the one sure way of showing that the world does contain gratuitous evils is to prove that God does not exist. But it would then seem to follow that one cannot appeal to gratuitous evils while arguing against the existence of God—unless, that is, one is unconcerned about begging the question.[45]

In other words, if we have good reasons, arguments, and justification to believe that God exists (see reason #4 above), we can rationally conclude there are no gratuitous evils:

  1. If God exists, there are no gratuitous evils.
  2. God exists.
  3. Therefore, there are no gratuitous evils.[46]

But suppose there are gratuitous evils. Does this count against Christian theism? Again, not necessarily. Some Christian theists have argued that life here on earth may indeed contain gratuitous evil, that is, evil which serves no earthly good from a human perspective, but which is overcome by the glory that awaits believers in heaven, the overwhelming joy they will experience, and the eternal rewards God will lavish on them (more on this below under #10). In light of eternity, i.e., once we adopt an eternal point of view, the problem of gratuitous evil should no longer be a problem:

 In this life, senseless and irrational evils may occur. But when redeemed believers are able to look back upon those evils from their glorified standing in heaven, they will know what the apostle Paul meant when he wrote: “I consider that our present sufferings are not worth comparing with the glory that will be revealed us in heaven” (Rom. 8:18).[47]

William Lane Craig writes,

It may well be that there is suffering in the world that serves no earthly good at all, that is entirely pointless from a human point of view, but which God permits simply that He might overwhelmingly reward in the afterlife those who undergo such suffering in faith and confidence in God.[48] 

#8 The POE is a problem because we forget our God is a God of redemption who willingly suffers with us.

Biblical examples of God redeeming evil and suffering for good can be seen in both the Old and New Testaments. The most obvious and well-known example in the Old Testament is the story of Joseph. Although Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers, transported against his will to Egypt, falsely accused of sexual misconduct with Potiphar’s wife, and sent to jail, God was working behind the scenes to ultimately bring about a greater good: the earthly salvation and preservation of many people. After everything Joseph went through, his merciful attitude toward his brothers reflected a divine perspective:

As for you, you meant evil against me, but God meant it for good in order to bring about this present result, to preserve many people alive (Gen. 50:20). 

In the New Testament, the crucifixion of Jesus Christ is the chief example of God not only redeeming evil and suffering for good but also of His willingness to share in our suffering.

Regarding redemption, if Jesus Christ was the Son of God, then His crucifixion has to be the most heinous evil ever perpetuated by man. From a mere human, finite perspective this single act would appear completely gratuitous, without any justifying reason whatsoever. And yet we know that God is redeeming this great evil for good through the salvation of all those who place their trust in Christ. If God, therefore, is able to redeem for good the most evil act ever undertaken by man, how much more is He able to redeem our own light, momentary afflictions? (2 Cor. 4:17)

Regarding His willingness to suffer with us, William Lane Craig states,

God is not a distant Creator or impersonal ground of being, but a loving Father who shares our sufferings and hurts with us. On the cross, Christ endured a suffering beyond all understanding…because He loves us so much. How can we reject Him who gave up everything for us? When God asks us to undergo suffering that seems unmerited, pointless, and unnecessary, meditation upon the cross of Christ can help to give us the strength and courage needed to bear the cross that we are asked to carry.[49]

Douglas Groothuis comments,

No other worldview teaches that God Almighty humbled himself in order to redeem his sinful creatures through his own suffering and death. No other worldview endorses the idea that the supreme reality was impaled by human hands for the sake of lost souls… God in Christ was no stranger to agony and death. Many impugn God’s allowance of evil by claiming that God is far removed from our earthly distress. But he is not. No other God bears the scars of rejection, betrayal, humiliation, and crucifixion. Jesus Christ knows our pain from the inside out because he has suffered more intensely than anyone.[50] 

#9 The POE is a problem because we forget that a life of suffering, persecution, hardship, and self-denial is what Jesus offers us.

Sometimes the “gospel” is presented this way: “Try Jesus, He’ll make your life better!” But reality and life experience tell us this isn’t necessarily the case. In countries around the world, Christians may be raped, tortured, and put to death if their faith in Jesus is discovered. Nowhere in Scripture does Jesus promise His followers a field of flowers to frolic through or a life of health, wealth, and prosperity. Rather, Jesus said,

Behold, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves; so be shrewd as serpents and innocent as doves. But beware of men, for they will hand you over to the courts and scourge you in their synagogues (Matt. 10:16-18).

Brother will betray brother to death, and a father his child; and children will rise up against parents and cause them to be put to death. You will be hated by all because of My name, but it is the one who has endured to the end who will be saved (Matt. 10: 21-22).

Do not think that I came to bring peace on the earth; I did not come to bring peace, but a sword. For I came to SET A MAN AGAINST HIS FATHER, AND A DAUGHTER AGAINST HER MOTHER, AND A DAUGHTER-IN-LAW AGAINST HER MOTHER-IN-LAW; AND A MAN’S ENEMIES WILL BE THE MEMBERS OF HIS HOUSEHOLD” (Matt. 10:34-36).

If anyone wishes to come after Me, he must deny himself, and take up his cross and follow Me. For whoever wishes to save his life will lose it; but whoever loses his life for My sake will find it (Matt. 16:24-25).

If the world hates you, you know that it has hated Me before it hated you. If you were of the world, the world would love its own; but because you are not of the world, but I chose you out of the world, because of this the world hates you (John 15:18-19).

These things I have spoken to you, so that in Me you may have peace. In the world you have tribulation, but take courage; I have overcome the world (John 16:33).

The Apostle Paul experienced this first hand and taught the same thing:

Through many tribulations, we must enter the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22).

And not only this, but we also exult in our tribulations, knowing that tribulation brings about perseverance; and perseverance, proven character; and proven character, hope (Rom. 5:3).

For to you, it has been granted for Christ’s sake, not only to believe in Him, but also to suffer for His sake, experiencing the same conflict which you saw in me, and now hear to be in me (Phil. 1:29-30).

Indeed, all who desire to live godly in Christ Jesus will be persecuted (2 Tim. 3:12).

Jesus will always make your life better in the ultimate sense. However, it may well be the case that your life here on earth as a Christian is nasty, brutish, and short. But because knowledge of God is an incommensurable good this problem of evil should not be a problem at all:

One reason that the problem of suffering seems so puzzling is that people naturally tend to assume that if God exists, then His purpose for human life is happiness in this life. God’s role is to provide a comfortable environment for His human pets. But on the Christian view, this is false. We are not God’s pets, and the goal of human life is not happiness per se, but the knowledge of God—which in the end will bring true and everlasting human fulfillment. Much of the suffering in life may be utterly pointless with respect to the goal of producing human happiness, but it may not be pointless with respect to producing a deeper knowledge of God.[51]

#10 The POE is a problem because we fail to have an eternal perspective and appreciate the glory that awaits us in heaven.

The doctrine of heaven is probably one of the most underemphasized and underappreciated doctrines of the Christian faith.[52] For many believers, heaven is simply the “P.S.” to the Christian life. But we ignore the topic of heaven at our own peril. Like the topic of human depravity, a full treatment of heaven is not possible here. I again point you toward an article by Clay Jones as well as his forthcoming book Why God Allows Evil:

 Reigning with Christ

In short, our failure to understand the problem of evil is due in large part to our failure to adopt an eternal perspective and to fully appreciate the glory that awaits us. Heaven is the ultimate solution to the problem of evil, both intellectually and emotionally. C.S. Lewis was right when he said that a successful answer to the problem of evil cannot exclude the reality of heaven:

Scripture and tradition habitually put the joys of heaven into the scale against the sufferings of earth, and no solution of the problem of pain that does not do so can be called a Christian one.[53]

This means that not only is heaven a completely relevant answer to the problem of evil but it is also a necessary one. The knowledge and promise of heaven allows Christians to endure suffering and hardship the same way a child might endure an unpleasant dinner for the promise of dessert. In fact, Scripture commands this should be our focus:

Set your minds on the things above, not on earthly things. For you have died, and your life is hidden with Christ in God. When Christ who is our life appears, then you also will appear with him in glory (Col. 3:1-4).

Therefore, prepare your minds for action; be self-controlled; set your hope fully on the grace to be given you when Jesus Christ is revealed (1 Pet. 1:13).

In his great mercy he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, and into an inheritance that can never perish, spoil or fade—kept in heaven for you, who through faith are shielded by God’s power until the coming of the salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time. In this, you greatly rejoice, though now for a little while you may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials. These have come so that your faith—of greater worth than gold, which perishes even though refined by fire—may be proved genuine and may result in praise, glory, and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed (1 Peter 1:3-7).

Furthermore, the so-called problem of evil will one day be resolved because God intends to destroy all evil once and for all. The argument could be stated as follows:

  1. If God is all-good, He wants to defeat evil.
  2. If God is all-powerful God, He can defeat evil.
  3. But evil is not yet defeated.
  4. Therefore, evil will one day be defeated.[54]

In other words, the existence of an all-good, all-powerful God and the existence of evil, rather than being an argument against God or His character, can just as easily be used as an argument which demonstrates that God will one day put an end to evil, as He Himself promises:

Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth…and He will wipe away every tear from their eyes, and there will no longer be any death; there will no longer by any mourning, or crying, or pain; the first things have passed away (Rev. 21:1, 4).

The problem then with the skeptic’s argument regarding the problem of evil is two-fold: (1) It assumes God does not have a morally sufficient reason for allowing evil and (2) It fails to take into account the Christian doctrine of heaven and the final eschatological consummation of all things, including the end of all evil, pain, and suffering.

An illustration may help us grasp how heaven will make our pain and affliction experienced here on earth completely trivial and insignificant.[55] Often a complaint is raised regarding the quantity and intensity of evil a person may experience in this world. But given the reality of heaven, this doesn’t seem to be a problem. For example, suppose you live a very painful existence in which you suffer immensely for most of your life, yet despite this, you come to know Christ. Given this scenario, we may ask the question, “What is a finite lifetime of suffering compared to an eternity of glory, joy, and reward in heaven?” There is simply no comparison. If we were to draw an eternal timeline and mark your life of suffering on it, it would be infinitesimal. In fact, a parent who gives their child a measles shot causing her to cry for ten minutes of her life is causing more suffering by comparison than God allows you to experience in an entire lifetime in light of eternity in heaven. I don’t think this point can be overemphasized. Heaven dwarfs evil into insignificance.

This is something the Apostle Paul understood very well. William Lane Craig does an excellent job addressing this point so I quote him here at length:

When God asks His children to bear horrible suffering in this life, it is only with the prospect of a heavenly joy and recompense that is beyond all comprehension. The apostle Paul underwent a life of incredible suffering. His life as an apostle was punctuated by “afflictions, hardships, calamities, beatings, imprisonments, tumults, labors, watching, hunger” (2 Cor. 6:4-5). Yet he wrote,

“We do not lose heart…For this slight momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, because we look not to the things that are seen, but to the things that are unseen; for the things that are seen are temporal, but the things that are not seen are eternal.” (2 Cor. 4:16-18)

Paul lived this life in the perspective of eternity. He understood that the length of this life, being finite, is literally infinitesimal in comparison with the eternal life we’ll spend with God. The longer we spend in eternity, the more the sufferings of this life will shrink by comparison toward an infinitesimal moment. That’s why Paul called the sufferings of this life a “slight momentary affliction”: He wasn’t being insensitive to the plight of those who suffer horribly in this life—on the contrary, he was one of those people—but he saw that those sufferings were simply overwhelmed by the ocean of everlasting joy and glory that God will give to those who trust Him.[56]

To summarize, heaven will be eternal and full of pleasure while our suffering on earth is not. Therefore, heaven solves the problem of evil with regard to the quantity and intensity of suffering experienced here in this life. The reason we fail to understand this problem of evil is because we fail to have an eternal perspective. Paul sums up this point best:

For I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory that is to be revealed to us (Rom. 8:18).

Ironically, those who reject God because of evil are rejecting the only One who can redeem evil and suffering for good:

Paradoxically, then, even though the problem of suffering is the greatest objection to the existence of God, at the end of the day God is the only solution to the problem of suffering. If God does not exist, then we are locked without hope in a world filled with pointless and unredeemed suffering. God is the final answer to the problem of suffering, for He redeems us from evil and takes us into the everlasting joy of an incommensurable good: fellowship with Himself.[57]

Conclusion

If we want to understand the problem of evil we need to take seriously the first three chapters of the book of Genesis and the last three chapters of the book of Revelation. Everything in between is about good and evil, ruling and reigning. Adam has plunged all of mankind into a lifelong education of the knowledge of good and evil. As his descendants, we are born corrupt and deserving of death. God is using the evil and suffering of this world to teach free beings the horror of sin, persuading them that He is right, and drawing them into a relationship with Himself. Those who endure and choose to honor God in spite of sorrow and affliction will be glorified in heaven where they will rule and reign forever. The ultimate lesson to be learned from all of this is that if you hate evil, hate sin. At last, God will make all things right and put an end to all heartache, anguish, and suffering for those who love Him and are called according to His purpose (Rom. 8:28-39; Rev. 21:1, 4).

Amen.

Notes

1] David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, part X, in The Empiricists (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974), 490, as quoted in John S. Feinberg, Many Faces of Evil: Theological Systems and the Problems of Evil, 3rd ed. (Wheaton: Crossway, 2004), 18.

[2] I am indebted to Dr. Clay Jones and his instruction which has deeply influenced my thinking regarding the problem of evil, much of which is reflected in this article. See his website at www.clayjones.net.

[3] Feinberg, Many Faces of Evil, 21-29.

[4] I often use “problem of evil” rather generally to mean “why God allows evil, pain, and suffering.” When a specific problem or different definition is under discussion, it will either be mentioned explicitly or hopefully will be obvious to the reader.

[5] Feinberg, Many Faces of Evil, 27. “A theodicy purports to offer the actual reason God has for allowing evil in our world. A defense…claims to offer only a possible reason God might have for not removing evil.” (29)

[6] See ibid., 33-122.

[7] Richard Dawkins, River Out of Eden (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 133 (my italics).

[8] Douglas Groothuis, Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2011), 622-623.

[9] Kenneth Richard Samples, Without a Doubt: Answering the 20 Toughest Faith Questions (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2004), 246.

[10] Randy Alcorn, If God is Good: Faith in the Midst of Suffering and Evil (Colorado Springs: Multnomah, 2009), 21, 35.

[11] William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics, 3rd ed. (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008), 173.

[12] William Lane Craig, Hard Questions, Real Answers (Wheaton: Crossway, 2003), 107.

[13] William Lane Craig, On Guard: Defending Your Faith with Reason and Persuasion (Colorado Springs: David Cook, 2010), 162.

[14] Ibid., 161.

[15] Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 617, 619.

[16] I am indebted to Clay Jones for most of the material in this section.

[17] William Dembski, The End of Christianity: Finding a Good God in an Evil World (Nashville: B&H, 2009), 27-28.

[18] Gen. 3:16-17.

[19] Millard Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1988), 654.

[20] This view of the origin of the soul is known as traducianism, contra special creation.

[21] Dembski, The End of Christianity, 25-26.

[22] I am indebted to Dr. Clay Jones for most of the material and insight presented here, as well as pointing me to the following passage by D.A. Carson.

[23] D.A. Carson, How Long, O Lord?: Reflections on Suffering and Evil (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2006), 61.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Ibid.

[26] This is a loose reconstruction with some additions of my own.

[27] J.I. Packer, God’s Words, 71.

[28] For more on these first two points, I highly recommend reading Clay Jones, “We Don’t Take Human Evil Seriously so We Don’t Understand Why We Suffer” found at http://www.clayjones.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Human-Evil-and-Suffering.pdf.

[29] Clay Jones, “Disaster Is Always a Call to Repentance!” found at http://www.clayjones.net/2011/11/disaster-is-always-a-call-to-repentance.

[30] Clay Jones, Prepared Defense 2.0, “Free Will and Heaven”, 2011.

[31] Craig, On Guard, 166.

[32] Alcorn, If God is Good, 72-73.

[33] Thanks to Dr. Clay Jones for these points and commentary.

[34] C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 48.

[35] D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Studies in Ephesians Chapter 2 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1972), 12.

[36] Clay Jones, Human Evil and Suffering, 14, available at http://www.clayjones.net.

[37] Ronald Nash, Faith, and Reason: Searching for a Rational Faith (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988), 186.

[38] Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), 30.

[39] Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 637-639.

[40] See Nash, Faith and Reason, 189, as well as Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil, 26.

[41] Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 643.

[42] Nash, Faith and Reason, 211.

[43] Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil, 10-11.

[44] Jane Mary Trau, “Fallacies in the Argument from Gratuitous Suffering,” The New Scholasticism60 (1986): pp. 485-486, as quoted in Nash, Faith, and Reason, 212.

[45] Nash, Faith and Reason, 212.

[46] See Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 641, as well as Nash, Faith and Reason, 211-212.

[47] Nash, Faith and Reason, 215.

[48] Craig, On Guard, 167.

[49] Ibid., 170.

[50] Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 644.

[51] Craig, On Guard, 163-164.

[52] I am indebted to Clay Jones for most of the material in this section.

[53] Lewis, The Problem of Pain, 148.

[54] Argument adapted from Norman Geisler, If God, Why Evil? (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 2011), 42.

[55] I am indebted to Dr. Clay Jones for this illustration.

[56] Craig, On Guard, 166-167.

[57] Ibid., 173.